<text>The Space Exploration Initiative provides a focus that will allow the United States to seize control of our destiny in space. In doing this, six "visions" guide and direct our space efforts. These areKNOWLEDGE OF OUR UNIVERSE. We strive to understand the origin and history of our solar system, the origin of life, and the ultimate fate of our universe. People are the best explorers, but they often need machines to help. The Space Exploration Initiative is an integrated program of missions by humans and robots to explore, to understand, and to gain knowledge of the universe and our place in it.ADVANCEMENT IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Returning to the Moon, and onward to Mars will require the best engineering and scientific talent our nation can muster. Through a long-range commitment to space, we will stimulate our national education system and inspire students to learn. Motivated students are essential to excellence in education. The Space Exploration Initiative will motivate and inspire the new generations on which our future as a nation depends.UNITED STATES LEADERSHIP. The Space Exploration Initiative provides us with an opportunity to reestablish and maintain American preeminence in technological innovation and space leadership. Other nations have seized the initiative and become leaders in a tradition of space exploration that America pioneered. Leadership cannot be declared...it must be earned.TECHNOLOGIES FOR EARTH. America's recent history has demonstrated that our space program stimulates a wide range of technological innovations that find abundant application in the consumer marketplace. Space technology has revolutionized and improved our daily lives in countless ways, and it should continue to do so. Energy from space, advances in solar power and fusion fuels, new useful materials for advanced communications, new resources, medical breakthroughs, and greater insight into human potential are direct benefits we can expect. The Space Exploration Initiative provides focused goals to drive practical and beneficial technological change.COMMERCIALIZATION OF SPACE. Initiatives by the private sector are goals of our national space policy. Space is a limitless, untapped source of materials and energy, awaiting industrial development for the benefit of humanity. Commercial products, such as zero-gravity-derived materials, and service industries like advanced global communications services, all become increasingly feasible and profitable once routine, reliable and affordable access to space is available.STRENGTHENED U.S. ECONOMY. New technologies open new markets. An investment in the high technology needed for space exploration will maintain and improve America's share of the global market and enhance our competiveness and balance of trade. It will also directly stimulate the sceintific and technical employment bases in our country, sectors whose health is vital to our nation's economic security. The Space Exploration Initiative is an investment in the future of America.BUT, WHY NOW? As Americans, we must ask ourselvesΓÇöWhat will be our role in the future? Will we lead? Will we follow? Or, will we step aside? Leading world powers have always explored and profited greatly from new frontiers. Space is the new frontier of our industrialized world in the 21st Century. The Space Exploration Initiative will restore America to preeminence as the world's space leader. By offering both a direction and a purpose, it will rejuvenate our sense of challenge, of competitiveness and our national pride. The Space Exploration Initiative is a positive social endeavor. In a world of uncertainty, it has the capacity to inspire people, to stimulate them, and to cause them to reach deep inside to find the very best they have to offer. In America's history, our focused goal-driven initiatives have a spectacular record of success and benefit to all humanity. We must not settle for less in our future.</text>
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<text> Technologies for Space and for Earth</text>
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<text>Since our ancestors first gazed into the skies, the concept of space exploration has fueled the imagination, challenging mankind to understand the unknown, to explore . . . and to learn. In America today, scientific literacy is declining. Our students no longer lead the world in earning degrees in science, engineering and mathematics. For America's future, these trends must be reversed. The Space Exploration Initiative presents challenges and new goals. It will rekindle public interest in science. Once again, space exploration will excite the nation's imagination. It will motivate our educators to teach, and our public and students to learn, and then to innovate.Technology will provide the tools necessary for cost effective and safe exploration of the Moon and Mars. While the Initiative requires a broad range of technologies, power and transportation are both of primary importance. The safe use of nuclear energy for space propulsion can have the same benefits for space propulsion that jet propulsion had for air travel. Improved solar energy collectors and powerful new lightweight batteries will be vital tools as well. A conventional heavy lift launch vehicle will be needed to ferry large components and supplies to Earth orbit in preparation for distant voyages. For surface operations, advanced regenerative fuel cells will be critical for landers, rovers and lunar spacecraft.Crews will require air, water and food, along with protection from galactic and solar radiation in space. Recycling of air, food and water will be necessary, leading to improved technology for such purposes on Earth.Communication with Earth will be challenging. Space flight will require modern, lightweight computers and electronics. Optical communications will enhance operations between Mars, Moon and Earth.Advanced robotics will be needed to extend the astronauts' range into new locations, such as the polar ice caps of Mars or deep craters of the Moon. The use of video and tactile sensors to control robotic presence will allow exploration without exposing the astronauts to undue risk. Lunar mining and processing equipment will provide resources to supplement those delivered from Earth. We expect to recover rare commodities such as Helium-3 from the Moon for the benefit of Earth.In Columbus' time, exploring the New World mandated self-reliance. Similarly, independence from Earth's normal support systems will be key to extended living on the Moon and Mars. We must learn to use available resources to generate air, water, food and fuel, as well as to build permanent habitats.These concepts represent but a few of the many technological advances we expect from the Space Exploration Initiative. Ultimately, we will learn to use the vast resources of space to support and improve life here on Earth. This Initiative will open the solar system's energy and material resources to relieve the stress on Earth's environment from population growth, and provide our world with limitless resources for the future.</text>
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<text>At its closest point, Mars is 35 million miles from Earth. This distance increases to 250 million miles when we are on opposite sides of the Sun. By comparison, the Moon is only a quarter million miles awayΓÇöa three-day journey. The challenges of a Mars expedition stem from the distances, the long times away from Earth, the environment of deep space, and Mars' unique characteristics.A total Mars mission duration depends on both the round trip travel time and the time spent on the planet's surface. A typical conventional chemical propulsion mission would take about 250 days one-way with a surface stay of about 500 days to allow the planets to realign before returning home. Advanced nuclear propulsion technologies can shorten the trip to 160 days or less each way. This would allow more time for exploring Mars and provide longer launch windows, all with lower propellant mass.Shorter travel times are desirable to reduce the impact of the deep space environment on the crew and mission equipment. During the space voyage, expected hazards include radiation from galactic cosmic rays and solar flares, the lack of normal gravity, psychological stress from long term isolation, and equipment degradation.As a result of the challenges of a Mars trip, several hundred tons of equipment and fuel are required for a Mars expedition. Thus, we will require a conventionally powered heavy lift launch capability to minimize assembly in Earth orbit. From Earth orbit to Mars, nuclear propulsion technology will allow reduced weight, approximately one-half that of chemical systems, and achieve faster interplanetary trip times. At Mars, we will need Earth-independent operations, since round trip communications times will vary from 10 to 40 minutes. We will need improved long-term life support systems that operate for lengthy time periods without resupply.The planetary surface of Mars provides challenges different from those of the Moon. The planet is largeΓÇöabout one-third the size of Earth. It has a diverse topography, with 80,000-foot volcanos and canyons as long as our continent is wide. Mars' atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide and is known to have periodic dust storms. These features will require unique power systems, landers, rover vehicles and human habitats.</text>
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<text>Of all the planets in our solar system, Mars is the most like Earth. With a thin atmosphere, weather, seasons and a 25-hour day, Mars has a diverse and complex surface, including ice and evidence of the former presence of water. Although conditions on Mars may not support life now, evidence suggests that Mars was warmer, wetter, and had a much denser atmosphere early in its history. Life may have existed. If so, fossil evidence may be found.Mars has undergone a complicated geologic evolution. Its surface contains vast regions of sand dunes, gorges carved by running water, a polar ice cap, huge volcanos and gigantic canyons. Olympus Mons is three times as tall as Mount Everest, and larger than Montana. Valles Marineris is three times as deep and ten times as long as the Grand Canyon. Understanding the periodic changes in climate that have occurred on Mars will enable us to understand the Earth's climate and future behavior, a topic vital to the survival of life on Earth.With a land area equal to Earth's, Mars offers an unexplored wealth of natural resources. The essentials for life support, including air and water, can be manufactured on the martian surface. As Earth's assets dwindle, Mars may offer resources mankind will need.</text>
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<text>Earth's closest neighbor in space, the Moon, is surprisingly complex. It is an object for detailed exploration, a platform from which to observe and study the universe, a place to live and work in the environment of space, and a natural source of materials and energy for an emerging space-based economy.The Moon offers a record of four billion years of planetary history. Its violent birth and history of bombardment from space is closely related to events on the early Earth. The Moon provides a natural laboratory for detailed study of geology and planetary formation, the output of our Sun over its lifetime, and the elements of our universe. The Moon's two-week night, crystal clear, airless sky and stable ground provide a superb platform for astronomy.Just three days journey from Earth, the Moon is the nearest object in space where people can live under conditions similar to those we will face on other planets. Thus, the Moon is a natural test bed to prepare for missions to Mars by conducting simulations, systems testing, operations and studying human capabilities.The Moon is a rich source of materials and energy for use in space. Abundant metals, ceramics and recoverable amounts of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen can provide propellant and human life support from the lunar surface. The two-week daytime provides abundant solar energy. Our Moon provides a rich scientific and economic waystation for human expansion into the solar system.</text>
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<text>Apollo 11 first placed America on the Moon on July 20, 1969. This extraordinary accomplishment confirmed the United States' technological ascendancy for a generation. On the 20th anniversary of Apollo 11, President George Bush announced a new vision for America in the 21st centuryΓÇöa vision that will return mankind to the Moon to stay, and onward to land humans on Mars by 2019. This vision, the Space Exploration Initiative, represents the greatest challenge the world has ever known.Following preliminary studies by NASA, Vice President Quayle, as Chairman of the National Space Council, directed an extensive Outreach Program. The Outreach Program challenged Americans to search for new and innovative ideas and technologies to make space exploration safer, faster, better and more affordable.Vice President Qualye tasked former Apollo astronaut Lieutenant General Thomas Stafford, USAF (Ret.), to assemble "the Synthesis Group," an independent panel of recognized experts. Staffed by the best technical talent from across the United States government, industry and academia, the Synthesis Group was chartered to assess the widest possible range of innovation from all available sources, and to define technology priorities, early milestones and alternative architectures for the Space Exploration Initiative.The four architectures developed by the Synthesis Group provide alternatives. All are real pathways for returning to the Moon and then onward to Mars. All architectures offer three common areas of emphasis: human presence, exploration and science, and space resource development for the benefit of Earth. The alternative architectures are covered in detail in the Group's report. The challenges of the Space Exploration Initiative are great, but so is the quality of American talent and ingenuity, and so is the leadership of the American people. And...it is America's destiny to lead.</text>
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<text> "...humanity's destiny is to strive, to seek, to find...it is America's detiny to lead." President George BushIn 1989, President George Bush challenged America in a way no one has challenged us before: "Back to the Moon to stay, and onward to Mars." In the history of the human race, no challenge has been so great, and no goal so distant. Likewise, there has never been a nation like ours, nor an opportunity so promising.Ours is a rapidly changing world. To remain competitive and maintain world leadership in the 21st century, America will need the best trained and educated workforce, the most advanced technology and the strongest leadership. And we will need goals that challenge our abilities far beyond what we've experienced before.The Space Exploration Initiative is a vision for the 21st century. It is a vision of America reaching beyond itself, and onward, beyond the very bounds of this planet to an entirely new world. On the way there, we will reap the real, tangible benefits of space exploration.Space is clearly our most challenging frontier. Enroute to Mars, we will explore the Moon, advance Earth sciences, and develop new, innovative technologies. We can tap lunar, martian and solar energy resources as we explore the heights of human talent and ability. Along the way, American drive, initiative, ingenuity and technologyΓÇöall those things that have made this nation the most successful society on EarthΓÇöwill propel us toward a future of peace, strength and prosperity.The challenge is before us. Here is how we begin.</text>
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<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<text> Conclusions and RecommendationsΓÇöWhat do we do next?</text>
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<text>We have in hand a good understanding of the opportunities where an ISMU program can provide vast savings to the SEI. Without such a plan, it is uncertain that America would choose to bear the expense of such a push into the solar system. The specific products outlined in this report define the areas where we must develop further technology to bring these promises to fruition.What do we need to do next?ΓÇó We must rapidly develop and expand the technologies that would make possible the early use of available resources when we send people to the Moon and Mars.ΓÇó We must develop small, early robotic ISMU experiments to send before we send people. These systems will demonstrate the production of useful products in the actual environments of the Moon and Mars. We will learn from them, and they will influence the design of the production plants which will follow. This is a low risk approach.ΓÇó We must include strategies that aim toward maximum self-sufficiency as major goals of the SEI. This should include designing other elements of the outposts and spacecraft to maximize these benefits.ΓÇó We must implement the recommendations of the National Commission on Space and the Ride Report, which include continuing research and technology development programs focusing on processing indigenous raw materials into propellants and construction materials.Only by learning to live off the land will we be able to take the next "giant leap for mankind" and continue our journey to Mars and beyond.* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1991ΓÇö561-653 </text>
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<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<text> Benefits to America and the EarthΓÇöEveryone may benefit</text>
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<text>Historically, technology development programs carried out by NASA have been an excellent investment in America. Whenever we explore new technologies, there are spinoffs and benefits in areas where we didn't anticipate them. We now have a unique opportunity to have a much greater impact on direct terrestrial applications. In developing the capabilities for manufacturing in the severe environment of the Moon and Mars, we can expect that technology improvements and inventions will occur in several areas important to our life on Earth, including chemical engineering, mining, pollution control, computer programming, manufacturing, and other fields. We can also expect that improvements to the environment will result. The impact of our efforts in these areas should also be felt throughout our educational system as research programs mature.In their 1986 report, the National Commission on Space predicted that 21 st century America would receive the following types of benefits from the space program:ΓÇó Scientific and technological advances of critical importance to the nation's future economic strength and national security.ΓÇó Direct economic returns from space-based enterprises capitalizing on broad, low-cost access to space.ΓÇó New worlds to explore on the space frontier, with vast resources that can free humanity's aspirations from the limitations of Earth.Embodied within the SEI program, ISMU affects all of the aforementioned goals. We expect to be able to expand the capabilities of people and equipment at our outposts on the Moon and Mars, while the American taxpayer will benefit through the overall decreased cost of the SEI program.</text>
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<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<text> Oxygen and Metal Coproduction</text>
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<text>Because many minerals consist of metal oxides, we can utilize them to produce both oxygen and metals. This scheme, first explored in 1971, passes an electric current through a molten silicate to release oxygen at the anode. Metals, both iron and silicon, are produced at the cathode. This metal layer can be tapped off into ingots for a variety of needs. There may also be a layer of slag which can be used for the production of bricks. Thus, three separate products can be made in one unit. This process is performed at high temperatures, and the stability of the materials used in many of the components of the plant requires further research before a viable process can be claimed. As in most other proposed routes to oxygen, the electric power requirements for such a unit are considerable.The actual chemical mechanisms that occur are quite complex; however, the reactions can be written as SiO2 ---> Si + 02 Fe0 ---> Fe + 1/2 02Thus, an alloy of iron and silicon is produced as a coproduct. An alloy of aluminum and silicon has also been produced in a laboratory investigation of a related process aimed at the production of metals from lunar materials. Alloys such as these can be further processed to provide construction materials for structures or interior articles.</text>
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<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<text> Designing for SpaceΓÇöConstraints</text>
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<text>Designing for SpaceΓÇöConstraintsWhile the advantages of incorporating an ISMU program into man's expansion into the solar system are clear, they must be weighed carefully against the requirements such an effort will impose.Many traditional engineering disciplines are represented in several functions at an outpost. Technology developed for one area can solve many other problems. Commonality is present at many levels in a program as large as the SEI. Some equipment will have evolving uses as time goes on, such as vehicles used to transport cargo later being used to mine regolith. Also, the technologies and procedures developed in an ISMU effort on the Moon would serve to bring us up the learning curve for similar operations on Mars. As shown in the table below, these technologies run the gamut of specialties. The lead time to develop these skills can be many years. We need to begin now.Since the benefits of ISMU present themselves, in part, in the form of reduced mass launched from Earth, the mass of the plants and equipment needed to provide these benefits must be low. The availability of everything we normally use to manufacture materials on Earth will be limited on the Moon and Mars. Power, mining capacity, spare parts, and especially manpower, will be in short supply. Hence, their usage comprises the criteria against which all processes must be judged. All elements of every space effort must be concerned with these limitations. The ISMU plants must operate at reduced gravity and, unless enclosed in a structure, will be exposed to vacuum, solar radiation, and severe temperature variations. They will be subject to the Moon's day/night cycle of two weeks each. Thus, reliability and operability will be extremely important. Complex systems that require frequent maintenance and spare parts must be avoided whenever possible. Systems which can be teleoperated or supervised from Earth will relieve the operations burden from the outpost. Automation similar to that used in present-day chemical plants, enhanced by expert systems now in the development stage, and supervised by Earth-based engineers and scientists, are planned for these robotic factories.</text>
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<text> Contributors</text>
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<text>NASA and the Aerospace CommunityNASA and many of the aerospace firms have begun considering how we can develop the potential of ISMU so that we can incorporate it with confidence into plans for the SEI. One realization is that many of the skills which will be required are not ones which they have traditionally embraced.The Chemical Process IndustryMany of the aerospace firms have thus formed links with companies whose main function is chemical processing. Firms that construct chemical plants or engage in the actual operation of these plants have decades of experience which can be brought to bear on the tasks which lie ahead.The Energy IndustriesLikewise, industries that work in the many aspects of energy here on Earth can bring their expertise to many of the hurdles we face in methane production and handling, power generation from stored thermal energy, lunar power systems, or helium fusion. Additionally, the power requirements of most ISMU processes can be quite high, so energy conservationΓÇöalso being pursued by industryΓÇöwill play a role.The Steel-making and Nonferrous Metal-making IndustriesAs described earlier, many of the routes to oxygen are similar in nature to the production of metals from ores. The processing of regolith for metal and oxygen production can benefit from the knowledge and experience of metallurgical firms.The Mining IndustryBefore we can hope to process the soil of the Moon into other materials, we will most likely need to dig it up and feed it into our processing plants. There are many concepts of how to do this, but all will need to resolve many of the same issues that have been faced by mining companies for centuries. While there are problems on the Moon that are not a factor here on Earth, the mastery of this skill will require NASA to include the lessons of this segment of industry in its planning. The U.S. Bureau of Mines and several universities have already begun to consider the requirements and options for lunar mining equipment.The Construction and Materials Transport IndustriesThe skills and technologies engendered in these industries will be critical to many aspects of a lunar outpost. Excavation and materials transport, like mining, will teach us how to prepare a site for a habitat module as well as how to bring regolith to our feedstock pile. Larger scale production will require larger processing plants. These plants may exceed the size and mass we can bring down on a single vehicle, thus construction will be required at some level. Since many of these capabilities will be needed in the fabrication of larger habitats, whether they are derived from ISMU products or brought from Earth, there is a great need for adaptable construction equipment.</text>
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<text> Developing the TechnologyΓÇöWho can contribute?</text>
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<text>The timing and likelihood of the products described above are not equal. Oxygen and cast basalt are two products which, we feel, are relatively easy to produce. The greater amount of mining for light gas collection puts these products further into the future and also requires robust mining systems. While the production of refined materials such as silicon and aluminum has already been demonstrated, the fabrication of solar cells, wires, and structural beams from these feedstocks requires a fair degree of manufacturing sophistication.The development of new technologies will thus be necessary to accrue the benefits of ISMU. Thermal control, cryogenic engineering, and space power sources are cross-cutting technologies that are well understood, but chemical processing, teleoperated mining vehicles, and manufacturing are new to NASA.In their 1986 report, the National Commission on Space recommended the formation of "a continuing program to test, optimize, and demonstrate chemical engineering methods for separating materials found in space into pure elements suitable as raw materials for propellants and for manufacturing." This directive was based on lab results from preliminary tests of oxygen extraction using electrolytic and chemical processes. The Commission continued with the following recommendation: "Research to pioneer the use, in construction and manufacturing, of space materials that do not require chemical separation, for example: lunar glasses and metallic iron concentrated in the lunar fines." The development of many of the technologies in each of these disciplines will be synergistic. As in any development program, time and effort will be necessary to bring these possibilities to fruition. How will we acquire the necessary expertise to accomplish our goals?</text>
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<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<text> An Evolutionary Approach to Using Space Resources</text>
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<text>In 1987 the "Ride Report" stated that, "Exploring and prospecting the Moon, learning to use lunar resources and work within lunar constraints, would provide the experience and expertise necessary for further human exploration of the solar system." It went on to assert that, "There is no doubt that exploring, prospecting, and settling Mars should be the ultimate objectives of human exploration. But America should not rush headlong toward Mars; we should adopt a strategy to continue an orderly expansion outward from Earth."When we return to the Moon and proceed to Mars, we are not going there solely to utilize the resources. We are goingΓÇó to satisfy our need to explore, to strive, to seek, to find,ΓÇó to increase the pool of scientific knowledge,ΓÇó to enhance our understanding of life in the universe and to find out if life once existed on Mars,ΓÇó to ignite the human spirit and enhance our national pride,ΓÇó to keep our country competitive in economic, political, and technological areas,ΓÇó to improve the Earth's political and economic condition, andΓÇó to invigorate science and engineering for our children's cducation, and countless other reasons.However, using lunar and Mars resources can have a major effect on the way we proceed, the cost of the program, its timetable, milestones along the way, and ultimately on whether the program is successful or not.The real test of whether a program to put people permanently into space is successful is whether they stay. And people will only stay on the Moon and Mars if they learn how to use local resources to make their settlements permanent. Otherwise, the continual cost of supplying everything from Earth will become too great a burden, and these settlements will be abandoned.The timing, or phasing-in, of ISMU will be a natural evolution of productivity as power levels and capabilities increase. As in any market, the needs of the outpost will dictate what products are produced. Many technologies already exist and need only be modified for use in space. Robotic units sent ahead of crews will perform critical experiments. These units will be followed by engineering prototypes for the demonstration and verification of technologies and products. Each level will justify itself in terms of enhanced capabilities or cost benefitto the SEI. Each step forward will provide minimal risk and will have graceful upgrades and safe fallbacks. As pressurized living space is expanded, the material necessary for radiation protection shall, of necessity, be produced. This will also provide material for other uses at the outpost. The technology and vehicles used for mining this material will later be used to mine feedstock for a lunar LOX plant and perhaps burrow under the surface for the creation of inhabitable tunnels. As the reusability of landing vehicles is demonstrated, the manufacture of propellant (such as LOX) will be brought on-line: enough for ascent back to lunar orbit at first, but eventually enough to make a round trip. During this time the technology necessary for metal and light gas production will be developed, providing the flexibility for whatever avenues we choose to follow in our exploration of space, with little support required from Earth .By mastering the details of this type of operation in an extraterrestrial environment, we will beusing the Moon to learn how to operate with minimum dependence on Earth, a skill necessary to control the cost of expanding our presence in the solar system. In addition to the hard engineering technologies required to accomplish this task, the use of teleoperation, automation, and robotics will increase the capabilities of the outpost without a large cadre of astronauts.This timing of the use of lunar and Mars resources must fit into the overall mission of a lunar and Mars program. In some mission "architectures," only simple products will be possible because of the limited power, mass, and logistics available to produce them. Other schemes can be envisioned where the first flights bring large numbers of robotic processing plants so we can build up the outpost from local materials. A scaled-back, man-tended base would provide the core for this bootstrapping activity. Only after we can refuel landing vehicles and build structures would we attempt to bring down large payloads or increase stay times. The propellant for the Mars voyages might also be produced on the Moon, thus saving the enormous expense of lifting it from Earth. A number of similar concepts of varying complexity exist.On Mars we will again develop the capability to extract those things from the local environment which we need for survival. The martian atmosphere can be used to provide oxygen for life support and eventually for propellant. Methane and water will be produced for a variety of uses. Schemes incorporating these concepts into robotic missions can provide an early demonstration of the technology and greatly increase the mass of a returned sample, while lowering the mass launched from Earth.</text>
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card_80746.xml
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<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Relationship to Space Exploration Initiative (SEI)</text>
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<text>On the 20th anniversary of the landing of Apollo 11, President Bush committed the United States to going "...back to the Moon, back to the future, and this time, back to stay...And then a journey into tomorrow, a journey to another planet, a manned mission to Mars." This Space Exploration Initiative builds on the successes of the past and gives direction for the future.With the help of outside inputs, NASA is defining possible strategies to be used to work toward the goals of the SEI. Some paths make extensive use of ISMU to build up our presence in the solar system quickly. Others take a more restrained approach, relying almost completely on bringing material from Earth as part of an overall attempt to lower the cost of the program by trading off scientific and operational capabilities. As the program develops over the next several years, the interplay of capabilities and investments will be more completely understood for the program as a whole. A near-term focus of the SEI is on technology development, with a search for innovative ideas that have a high leverage impact on cost, schedule, and performance. Since the ISMU program affects all these measures of performance, it is sure to play a major role in this effort.</text>
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card_80451.xml
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<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Carbon Dioxide as a Raw Material</text>
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<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>The carbon dioxide (C02) that makes up 95 percent of the atmosphere of Mars can be a valuable starting material for the manufacture of critical products. Unlike lunar resources, C02 can be had by merely compressing the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide itself can be used to support plant growth at an advanced outpost. Both carbon and oxygen are important elements which have many possible uses at an outpost. There are several well understood chemical reactions that we can use to produce oxygen, methane, water, and perhaps other materials.Oxygen can be produced by passing C02 through a zirconia electrolysis cell at 800 to 1000┬░ C. Twenty to thirty percent of the C02 dissociates into oxygen and carbon monoxide. Separation is accomplished by electrochemical transport of oxide ion through a membrane. A prototype reactor using this chemistry has been run for over 1000 hours. Using such a scheme, we could bring a small unit to the surface of Mars which would then continuously make oxygen for life support, propellant use, or further processing. The only additional item we would need to supply is the power to run it: a 12kW unit would produce about one metric ton of oxygen per month.This oxygen can be converted into water if we also bring a small supply of hydrogen. Since the molecular weight of hydrogen is 2 and the molecular weight of water is 18, we can leverage 2 kilograms of hydrogen into 18 kilograms of water. The mass savings would, at some manufacturing rate, pay back the mass of the oxygen production unit. After that, we would get water for only the price of getting the hydrogen to Mars. 2 C02 ---> 2CO + 02 zirconia electrolysis 02 + 2H2 ---> 2 H20 cornbustion of hydrogenIf we choose to import hydrogen, there are other things we can do with it in addition to making water. A chemical reaction which converts C02 into methane (CH4) was discovered in 1899. This is known as the Sabatier reaction. Along with the C02, hydrogen is passed over a finely divided metal catalyst at an elevated temperature. Methane and water vapor are produced. By taking this water vapor and splitting it to obtain oxygen and hydrogen (which is recycled), we can completely convert the imported material into 4 times its mass of fuel. We also get the oxygen we need to burn this fuel in a rocket engine, fuel cell, or internal combustion engine. When combined with the production of additional oxygen via the zirconia process described above, only 4 kilograms of hydrogen can be converted into 72 kilograms of a rocket propellant mixture. C02 + 4 H2 ---> CH4 + 2 H20 Sabatier Reaction 2H20 ---> 2H2+02 Electrolysis C02 + 2 H2 ---> CH4 + 02 Net ReactionOther well known reactions have been practiced for decades which can also accomplish similar conversions. Fischer-Tropsch chemistry is practiced in the petrochemical industry in a variety of ways. It converts carbon monoxide and hydrogen into methane and water. The Bosch reaction can convert CO2 and hydrogen into carbon and water. The carbon could, perhaps, be used for advanced material production at an outpost once fabrication facilities are available.Eventually, we will obtain water from the environment of Mars. We would then not need to make water from imported hydrogen. Indeed, we could turn the situation around and use this water as a source of hydrogen, thus continuing to utilize the chemical processing capabilities we have developed. For instance, it would be even more favorable to produce methane from the atmospheric C02 and water-derived hydrogen. This would require the production of much less water than if we switched the space transportation system to a hydrogen-oxygen propellant system. It is also much easier to liquefy methane than hydrogen.With a large amount of hydrogen available, and a ready supply of C02, we may consider going the next step and developing the ability to produce a large variety of products. If ethylene were produced from hydrogen and a carbon source, polyethylene can be made using technology available today. This material, or other carbon-based polymers, can then be extruded or molded to form habitats, furniture, pipes, and a variety of useful items. The petrochemical and natural gas industries can contribute a great deal of expertise in this area.</text>
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card_80363.xml
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<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Mars Atmospheric Resources</text>
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<text>Upon reaching Mars, we again have a world with resources that can be used to expand our capabilities. The martian atmosphere, consisting mostly of carbon dioxide, can be processed to release oxygen for life support or propellant use. Carbon monoxide, which could be a moderate performance rocket fuel, is the coproduct. By combining this oxygen with a small amount of hydrogen, water for a variety of uses could be produced for only a fraction of its mass if brought from Earth. One good aspect of atmosphere utilization is that no mining is involved. Simple gas handling equipment can be used, providing a much more reliable system.Life support technologies routinely deal with the conversion of C02 to other compounds, including methane. This process was discovered nearly one hundred years ago and is still used in many chemical plants today. A direct application of this technology to the martian atmosphere would allow for the production of oxygen, methane, and water by bringing only a small amount of hydrogen. Thus, large quantities of propellant could be leveraged from minimal import mass. As described earlier, a rocket engine using methane and oxygen could be developed for use in both lunar and martian spacecraft. This could enable another large cost savings for the SEI by utilizing those materials available at the Moon or Mars.Planetary scientists agree that water is available at the poles of Mars in the form of ice. It is likely, but not certain, that water is available elsewhere on the planet, perhaps as a permafrost layer or bound as a mineral hydrate. If the robotic missions in the early stages of the SEI provide evidence of water, there is every reason to believe that a process can be developed to make it available for human use. It is likely that one could even extract enough water to produce both hydrogen and oxygen propellant for the launch back to orbit and even the return trip to Earth, thus reducing the size of the spacecraft leaving Earth for Mars. Telerobotic mining at distances as far as Mars is not practical, however, and totally automated systems would need to be developed. And, at the more accessible latitudes near the equator, any water is likely to be found at a lower depth, compounding the problem.The two moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, may also be rich in water. Processing at the extremely low gravity present on these bodies will require some innovative equipment. While early exploration scenarios suggest it would be difficult to bring this promise to fruition, future operations on or near Mars could easily make use of the potential within these bodies. Many asteroids are believed to be of similar composition and are also likely targets for utilization once we have honed our ability to operate highly complex equipment at distances so remote that teleoperation is not feasible. For the near term, however, the SEI requires the development of an ISMU program which focuses on the Moon and Mars.</text>
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<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Building with blocks</text>
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<text>Such blocks might also be useful for paving the launch and landing area to prevent engine exhaust from sandblasting the outpost. Simple walls made from these blocks can provide shade for outside equipment such as thermal radiators and protect them from some of the direct sunlight. Similarly, simple garages made of blocks can provide thermal protection during the cold lunar night for critical equipment such as rovers. In these and other ways, the ability to produce simple, lo-tech construction material may significantly improve outpost operation.Another possible use of cast basalt blocks might be as a storage mass for thermal energy. By simply heating these blocks using solar concentrators during the day, and then withdrawing this energy at night, heat engines might become competitive with other forms of power generation. Because of the long lunar night, power storage devices brought from Earth would be massive. By using materials indigenous to the Moon, even with an inefficient technology, a more efficient system (defined as kilowatts per imported kilogram) based on thermal energy storage may be possible. This is a case where the true product is a service, namely energy storage, rather than a one-for-one replacement.Other related products include glass blocks, glass windows, fibers for reinforcement, and even fiberglass mats and fabrics which can be produced by melting and processing soil. In the extremely dry lunar environment, these glass products may rival metals as strong construction materials. In the longer term, the production of cement and concrete is also under consideration. The manufacture of these materials presents the opportunity to expand the inhabitable volume of the outpost with minimal support from Earth.</text>
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<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Lunar Brick Factory</text>
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<id>1</id>
<text>The production of pressed and fused (sintered) bricks for use in a variety of applications was studied by Battelle-Columbus in 1988. Their design resulted in a six-step process for the production of more than 200,000 bricks per year using only currently available ceramics processing technology. This is sufficient to cover six lunar habitat modules, as currently envisioned, with two meters of densified and stabilized regolith as shielding.The first step after mining the raw feedstock is to screen it to remove the coarse stones which would interfere with the mechanical handling involved in the production process. Next, the fine material would be loaded into a mold and pressed to compact the regolith. Heating to 1100┬░ C for a predetermined time is the key to allowing the compacted mass to achieve its strength. Controlled cooling allows the now solid bricks to retain this strength rather than fracture from internal stress. Finally, there must be a way of robotically removing and storing these bricks for use at the outpost.Estimates for the mass of such a plant run from 25 to 40 metric tons. Its power requirement is about 375 kW. Both estimates depend on the desired strength of the bricks as well as the thermal properties of the starting material. More recently, other groups have suggested the use of microwaves to lower the power requirement and increase the heating rate. If feasible, this would decrease the processing time and thus greatly reduce the plant mass. Even without this improvement, such a plant would pay for itself by returning its own mass in 3 to 4 days of operation. (See the next card for a sketch of the factory process.) </text>
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card_79182.xml
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<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Radiation Shielding</text>
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<id>1</id>
<text>The Apollo astronauts only stayed on the Moon for a few days, so they did not need massive shielding from radiation. People staying for any length of time must be protected, however, not only from solar flares but also from galactic cosmic radiation. Advanced lunar habitats could be constructed underground in tunnels, giving natural protection.Early habitats, on the other hand, may be prefabricated Space Station Freedom-type modules or inflatable stuctures brought from Earth. One way to provide shielding for these habitats is to simply pile a large amount of regolith on them. This might be the first use of lunar material at an outpost. A thickness of several meters would be required for long stay times, so the mass savings of using local material rather than bringing it from Earth is obvious.Burying the modules under a pile of soil has some drawbacks, however. It places constraints on the design of habitat modules and airlocks and may limit operations near the habitat. The soil could slide off, so it would have to be stabilized with supports or retaining walls. A thick layer of soil would make it difficult to add on rooms or to connect new wires, antennae, or pipes as the outpost was improved. Putting soil in sand bags would solve some of these problems but not all of them.An improvement over loose soil would be a radiation protection system constructed of cast basalt or sintered blocks made from regolith. These can provide much denser radiation protection compared to loose soil; therefore, the shield can be less thick. These blocks could be made in an automated block factory, formed into interlocking shapes, and moved and stacked by robotic arms. If access to the habitat wall is needed, the robotic arm could as easily remove the blocks. Later, when modules are added,the blocks can be removed easily and reused to accommodate expansion. Cast basalt has been used on Earth for years in many areas where hard, chemically resistant material is required. Much of the science and technology needed for lunar processing is already available in industry today.</text>
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card_78920.xml
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<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Ceramic, Glass, and Concrete Construction Materials</text>
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<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>In 1986, the National Commission on Space proposed that "...NASA specifically includevigorous development of the technologies for robotic and teleoperated production of shielding, building materials, and other products from locally available raw materials." Since only physical processing is required, and not a chemical transformation, it is likely that this technology will be among the first to be practiced at a lunar outpost.</text>
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card_78750.xml
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<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Complex productsΓÇöCan we make solar cells?</text>
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<id>1</id>
<text>The other option for returning power to Earth, collecting solar energy on the lunar surface and beaming it back to collectors on the Earth, requires a somewhat different capability at the outpost. In this proposal, large arrays of solar cells would be manufactured and emplaced on the Moon. The energy they collect would be converted into microwaves and transmitted to Earth using large antennae, which would also be produced on the Moon from indigenous materials. Previous studies have shown that it is not feasible to launch all of the material required for such a project from Earth.We must ask whether we can make all the necessary items for such a large project from the resources available on the Moon. The products required include solar cells, wires, microwave reflectors, and metal, glass, or ceramic support structures. We have already demonstrated in the laboratory the ability to make pure silicon for solar cell manufacture, iron for structures and wires, fiberglass and iron for reflectors, and a variety of other individual products from simulated lunar materials. The vacuum and lower gravity present on the Moon may actually make it easier to produce many of the articles we need. It remains to be shown in a research and development program that large scale production of these materials and fabrication of such items can actually be carried out on the Moon, but a focused effort should accomplish many, if not all, of these goals. This "lunar power system" would then become largely an engineering program. The most "high tech" elements of this system would most likely still be imported from Earth, however.After the development phase is complete, both of these enterprises could actually be run at a profit. The market for energy here on Earth will steadily increase as far into the future as we can see. Even if energy conservation programs are successful, the growing population of Earth and the increasing per capita use of energy, especially in developing countries, demand that we consider future energy needs in our lunar plans. The benefits to Earth's environment alone make these technologies worth exploring. We should remember that similar technology shifts in the past, such as the move from burning wood or coal to the use of petroleum products, took decades to evolveΓÇö this could be the next step to a benign energy source for an expanding population.</text>
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card_85964.xml
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<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Helium-3</text>
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<text>Along with the other light gases mentioned above, we can extract an isotope of helium from the regolith. He-3 has the potential to be used in fusion reactors here on Earth to provide electrical power. This technology, while still in the research stage, promises to be much "cleaner" than current, fission-based plants which consume uranium, and even cleaner than those fusion plants currently under development which would use radioactive tritium as a fuel. Why would we go to the moon for this material?ΓÇó It is nearly absent from Earth as a natural resource.ΓÇó Millions of kilograms of it are present in lunar soil, albeit at very low concentrations.ΓÇó It may be the fuel for the next generation of electric power plants, providing nearly pollution-free power.ΓÇó It may, in the 21 st century, replace our dwindling supplies of fossil fuels.ΓÇó It may be worth $2,000,000/kg.Along with deuterium, which can be extracted from sea water, He-3 is the primary fuel of a clean nuclear fusion reactor currently being investigated by U.S., European, and Japanese fusion research scientists. Some of these scientists believe that a demonstration fusion power reactor using the He-3/deuterium reaction can be built within 10 or 15 years and a commercial power reactor within 20 years. It would generate only a very slight amount of radioactivity, equivalent in nature to that produced by hospitals in their nuclear medicine areas. When used in this plant, He-3 would have so much energy that it would require only 20 tonsΓÇöless than one Shuttle loadΓÇöto supply all the electricity used in the United States in a year. The current cost of fuel used to provide this electricity is tens of billions of dollarsΓÇöand going up. We can estimate that the single Shuttle-load of He-3 might be worth about this same amountΓÇöor more when the environmental impact of fossil fuels is included.Of course, this story depends on the successful demonstration that the He-3 reactor will work. It also depends on whether we can economically extract He-3 from the Moon and bring it back. But many believe that both the successful reactor and the economic recovery of He-3 are likely events in the early 21st century.NASA is not a part of this fusion research, but the capability of recovering light gases implanted by the solar wind, if developed for smaller scale propellant or life support programs, can act as a "proof of concept" technology program to support future decisions made by the Department of Energy. The biggest hurdle is likely to be the extremely large mining requirement. Since He-3 comprises only 1 part in 2-3000 of the total helium, and since the total helium level is only 10 to 200 ppm, tens of millions of kilograms of regolith must be mined to obtain one kilogram of He-3. Of course, its value will be similarly large.</text>
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<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
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<id>17</id>
<text> Energy from the Moon</text>
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<id>1</id>
<text>There may be an opportunity for lunar resources to play a role in the energy industry here on Earth. Power generation is a vast and growing market. Energy is a product that may legitimately be worth bringing back to the Earth's surface from the Moon.How will we do this? In 1989, a NASA report concluded that, for the energy needs of the next century, we need to consider two alternatives enabled by a lunar outpost: solar energy collected on the lunar surface and beamed back to Earth via microwaves, and the return to Earth of a light isotope of helium, He-3. Both of these options would largely avoid the biggest problems of energy generation here on Earth: pollution, acid rain, ozone generation, carbon dioxide production with its potential for global warming, and large operations with highly radioactive fuels.</text>
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<id>16</id>
<text></text>
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card_77865.xml
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<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Light gas recovery</text>
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<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>Through the eons the solar wind has impinged upon the surface of the Moon, implanting hydrogen, helium, carbon, and other light elements at very low concentrations. Schemes to free these elements from the regolith have been conceived, and preliminary processes already exist.The extraction of this hydrogen has considerable importance since, with lunar LOX, we would then have an entirely lunar-derived propellant system. We might choose, instead, to produce methane as a fuel. While methane is not as powerful a propellant as hydrogen, its liquefaction is much easier to accomplish and less regolith would need to be processed, perhaps resulting in a better system overall. Methane is also considered a storable propellant, which means we would lose less from boil-off during the lunar day. This option is especially attractive if we also choose to use the martian atmosphere as a resource to produce methane for operations at a Mars outpost. The choice of propellant is a major driver of spacecraft design and needs to be considered from the start.Other light gases, such as nitrogen and even oxides of carbon, could provide a life support system with critical material. The ability to provide these resources can act as a layer of redundency, thereby providing a level of safety, in addition to relieving a cargo burden from the transportation system. Helium has many uses, too, including as a pressurant gas, a heat exchange fluid, and perhaps as an important element in terrestrial energy production (see next card).It is important to realize that a process which aims to produce any particular gas will also release the remaining gases from the regolith. For example, a plant built to produce hydrogen or methane will also isolate helium and nitrogen. However, the amount of mining required to produce these gases is very large. Concentrations of the gases in the regolith vary from a few parts per million (ppm) to a few hundred ppm. Thus, before we can exploit this potential successfully, we must develop our ability to mine and process large amounts of regolith under the harsh lunar conditions. Only if we pursue these technologies in the laboratory and integrate them throughout the system will we know if it makes sense to pursue them on a larger scale.</text>
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<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Metals - a primary product or a coproduct?</text>
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<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>Iron and steel production from iron ore, practiced on Earth for hundreds of years, is really a process for extracting oxygen from iron oxides and other ores. In a typical iron smelting process, the ore is combined with carbon from charcoal or coke. The carbon extracts the oxygen by chemical reduction of the ore, forming carbon dioxide (C02) and leaving metallic iron behind. The iron is saved, and the C02 is thrown away into the atmosphere. In a lunar version of this process, we would process this C02 to break it into carbon and oxygen. The oxygen would be collected, and the carbon would be recycled back into the reactor. Other metallurgical processes are practiced here on Earth which use hydrogen to reduce an ore to the metallic state, generating water vapor as an off-gas.The major metals present on the Moon are silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, magnesium and titanium, all combined as compounds in a variety of minerals. As discussed above for iron, when oxygen is released from minerals, one or more metals is necessarily coproduced. Well-designed oxygen plants will take advantage of this fact and produce metals in useful quantities. The specific metal (s) produced would depend on the chemical process used. Silicon has been produced in the lab from simulated lunar soil (natural terrestrial anorthosite, similar to that found in the lunar highlands) at purities acceptable for solar cell production. Aluminum, magnesium, and titanium production could also be practical, as they represent important structural metals in the aerospace industry.The production of metals, along with the production of oxygen, should be relatively easy. The next step, taking this metal and fabricating a useful product out of it, will require a fair degree of manufacturing capability. Some potential uses for locally produced metals at a lunar outpost or a Mars base might includeΓÇó structural beams, rods, and plates for constructionΓÇó cast shapes for foundation anchors, fasteners, bricks, tables and chairs, weights and flywheels for energy storageΓÇó solar cells, bus bars, and wires for power generation and distributionΓÇó pipes and storage vessels for fuel, water, and other fluidsΓÇó spray coatings or linings for buildingsΓÇó powdered metals for rocket fuels</text>
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<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Lunar Oxygen</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>As discussed above, lunar derived liquid oxygen is one of the big "carrots" in ISMU. Its main use, from a mass viewpoint, will be as a propellant to power the lunar lander up to lunar orbit (or some other transportation node such as a libration point) and back down to the lunar surface. Whether it would be used for the return-to-Earth-orbit leg of the journey would depend on further analysis and economic trades. Some engineers and scientists even envision its use in spacecraft bound for Mars.Lunar oxygen could also be used in fuel cells to power rovers or to provide some of the power to the outpost. The amount of oxygen required to make up for losses in the life support system is likely to be smaller, but represents yet another market. It would be reassuring to have an operating plant and some storage tanks full of oxygen in case of a failure in the life support system or as a backup if a problem arose in a resupply mission. Large amounts of oxygen might even make it practicable to have less complex life support systems for habitats and extravehicular activities. The cost and maintenance of these systems may therefore be reduced.Many chemical processes have been identified through NASA studies and workshops which can potentially extract oxygen from lunar rocks and soils. NASA, universities, and industry are all trying to understand these processes more fully to pick the best ones for plant design.It is not as if we are trying to develop an entirely new technology: We have been building plants which extract oxygen from minerals on Earth for hundreds of years. The basic technology is very old.</text>
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<script></script>
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card_83106.xml
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Some Useful Space Products</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>The range of products that can be generated through the processing of lunar regolith or Mars resources is limited only by our ability to develop the necessary technology. The first step is to determine which products would be most beneficial to the outpost and its support infrastructure. Since transportation costs are a major driver of the overall cost, this "marketing survey" generally focuses on mass as the selection criterion. We should note, however, that sometimes the product is really a service and that this service might be provided through a variety of means.Next, we need to determine which of these products can reasonably be made at the outpost, considering the constraints both in the near term and in the long range capabilities. Obviously, as in an Earth-based marketplace, some products will have higher value and some will be easier to produce than others. The items described on the following cards represent products which we believe are appropriate for near and midterm programs. As study of the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) in general and ISMU in particular proceeds, it is likely that the list will grow.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_82739.xml
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<script>on mouseUpgo to card id 70308end mouseUp</script>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Why bother making it there?</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>What does it take to bring a kilogram of anything to the surface of the Moon? First, you need to get the material to the launch pad at the Kennedy Space Center. Obviously, this means it must first be manufactured. The cost to make this item here on Earth will surely be lower than if we produce the same material on the Moon. From here on, however, the costs start to mount.Launching an item to low Earth orbit (LEO) takes a great deal of energy. Most of what is launched is the propellant needed to accelerate it to more than 27,000 kilometers per hour and get it the first few hundred kilometers above the surface of the Earth. The cost in dollars depends on many bookkeeping assumptions, but we know that only a small percentage of what leaves the pad ends up in orbit. Estimates of the launch costs of items via the Shuttle range from $6,000 to $12,000 per kilogram.A kilogram of material orbiting the Earth is not going to do you any good at a lunar outpost; you need to get it from LEO to the Moon. Leaving Earth orbit and going to lunar orbitΓÇöthe path Apollo tookΓÇögets only about one-third of the original mass to the vicinity of the Moon. From there, another propulsive maneuver will be required to get to the surface, meaning another mass reduction of about 50 percent. Alternatives to this route exist, such as going directly to the lunar surface or using other transportation "nodes," such as an Earth-Moon libration point. These have some advantages and some disadvantages involving mass ratios, safety, operations, landing site flexibility, and commonality with other missions; it is not a simple analysis.When all of this is factored together, only about one-sixth of what makes it to LEO can be payload for the lunar outpostΓÇöthe rest is the propellant to get it there. Thus, the cost of a kilogram of material on the surface is six times the cost of getting it to LEO, or many tens of thousands of dollars. Even if future launch vehicles can lower the cost by a factor of ten, we are still faced with a large bill for shipping and handling.And these figures all assume the best propellant combination available todayΓÇöhydrogen and oxygen. It is not a given that we will choose this propellant mixture for any or all of the spacecraft involved in the transportation system. Handling liquid hydrogen on orbit is a technology we have yet to demonstrate. Long stay times on the lunar surface can cause loss of the extremely low-boiling hydrogen. Furthermore, the required volume of liquid hydrogen is very large owing to its very low density. To alleviate these problems, we may choose a more storable fuel, such as a hydrocarbon (like methane), or a hydrazine derivative. This could remove the negative impacts of hydrogen on the overall system. Because of the lower performance of these propellant combinations, however, the ratio of payload delivered to the lunar surface to the initial mass in LEO will be lower than the 1:6 determined above. This translates to an even greater Earth launch mass to deliver that one kilogram to the Moon. During the Apollo missions, this ratio was around 1:10 because greater reliability dictated the choice of the less powerful hypergolic propellants. This difference would enter directly into any economic calculation. Indeed, making LOX on the Moon may make it more feasible to use these alternative fuels, benefiting from their favorable properties while ameliorating their effect on launch mass.If materials could be produced on the Moon, rather than bringing them from Earth, all of the extra mass launched as propellant to get them there would no longer be required. For example, if the ascent of a lunar excursion vehicle from the lunar surface to lunar orbit requires, say, five tons of LOX, we would no longer need to take this propellant there at the cost of launching more than 30 tons to LEO. This is equivalent to the entire payload capacity of today's Shuttle. By making the material there, we are saving the cost, the logistics, and the risk of a launch.The question then becomes: What does it take to produce useful products on the lunar surface? If the mass of a required item is small but the mass of the equipment to make it is large, then it clearly does not make sense to manufacture it there. If, on the other hand, the mass of the plant can be "paid back" in only a short operating time, we should consider making it there from those materials indigenous to the planet.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_71360.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<script>on mouseUpgo to card id 70308end mouseUp</script>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Lunar Raw Materials</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>During the Apollo era we learned the detailed mineralogy and chemistry of lunar materials as well as the rock and soil compositions at various locations on the Moon. In addition to abundant oxygenΓÇöabout 45 percent of the weight of lunar rocks and soils is chemically bound oxygenΓÇöthese materials also contain considerable silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, magnesium, and titanium which can be extracted as metals, possibly as coproducts of the same process which extracts oxygen.We also learned that lunar soils have trapped a number of different kinds of particles from the solar wind over the geologic eons and therefore contain helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon from the Sun. These elements can be extracted as gases by heating the soil. Thesegases are found in most lunar soils, but their concentration varies from place to place.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_71019.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<script>on mouseUpgo to card id 70308end mouseUp</script>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> THE HIGH COST OF SHIPPING</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>As currently envisioned, a large part of the cost of a lunar outpost will be that of bringing supplies and propellant from Earth. The major component of this propellant is liquid oxygen(LOX). NASA's "Report on the 90-Day Study on the Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars" estimated that the amount of mass launched to low Earth orbit (LEO) could be reduced by 300 tons per year if LOX were produced on the Moon. This is equivalent to 10 Shuttle launches at a cost of a several billion dollars per year. Even if we develop a new heavy lift launch vehicle (HLLV), the price tag to launch this propellant will be huge. By producing the oxygen on the planet where it is actually needed, there is no shipping penalty. Thus, the amount required is much smaller. The use of lunar-derived LOX is thus a high-leverage item because it frees our space vehicles from the inefficient and costly exercise of shipping bulk propellants. The total cargo that must be shipped to the Moon will be reduced significantly. And for the remaining flights, instead of transporting large quantities of LOX to the Moon, more people, complex equipment, andscientific instruments can be shipped to provide additional capabilities at the lunar outpost. This effect can be increased dramatically when we also produce lunar-derived fuels, such as hydrogen or methane.Perhaps as important as propellant production will be the use of the regolith for the manufacture of basic material. While it is true that much of the cargo arriving on the Moon will be extremely complex equipment, there is a real need for simple, basic infrastructure such as roads, rocket blast protection, and structures for habitats, storage, and equipment repair. If brought from Earth, the mass required for these uses would be enormous. For example, just for protection from solar particle radiation, the amount of mass that would have to be brought to the Moon represents several Space Shuttle launches. Based on present launch costs, the expense of transporting the hundreds of metric tons needed to protect an early habitat from this dangerous radiation would surpass a billion dollars.Just as important as cost is the high flight rate which would be needed to support this effort. This would strain the capacity of our launch systems. When LOX is produced on the Moon, fewer flights to LEO will be necessary. On-orbit assembly and processing at Space Station Freedom (SSF) can also be reduced. Indeed, the additional facilities that would otherwise be required here on Earth and at SSF represent further cost savings made possible through an ISMU program.Photos of the lunar module Falcon from Apollo 15 shows the Moon to be barren. Whatever is necessary for people to survive and be productive on the lunar surface will have to be produced there or brought from Earth. Due to the absence of an atmosphere on the Moon, the only material to work with is the regolith. Thanks to the expedition style missions of the Apollo program, the mineralogy of the moon is well understood. Process development leading to products that will be required at a lunar outpost must begin.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_70764.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<script>on mouseUpgo to card id 70308end mouseUp</script>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>USING SPACE RESOURCES</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> REDUCING THE COST OF SPACE EXPLORATION</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>card</layer>
<id>1</id>
<text>There is every indication that exploring the solar system and expanding humanity's permanent presence to the Moon and Mars will provide significant benefits to America. Over the past three decades, America's space program has more than paid back its cost in a number of ways, both tangible and intangible. Even though it will continue to be an expensive undertaking, a far higher price would be borne by our nation in avoiding such a mission. However, the importance, the enormity, and the inevitability of the program require immediate focus on ways to lower its cost without reducing its scope or increasing its risk. What can we do to lower the price tag of this ambitious exploration program while still accepting its challenge?We can process natural resources on the Moon and Mars into products we need at an outpost, thus avoiding the need to bring them from Earth. These resources can provide us with oxygen and nitrogen to breathe and water to drink. We can produce propellants for our spacecraft. Carbon dioxide (C02) can be extracted from the lunar soil, or regolith, to support plant growth for food. We will learn to fabricate bricks and panels from local materials and use them for constructing habitats, workshops, and storage buildings. We will extract metals from local rocks and soil to make beams, wires, and perhaps even solar power cells. In short, many of the essential materials needed for life on the new frontier can be produced from local resources.This program is ready to move from the concept stage into research and development. Indigenous Space Materials Utilization (ISMUΓÇöformerly called In-Situ Resource Utilization) can provide a reduction in cost and can increase our capabilities significantly as we develop and expand a lunar or Mars outpost. Our goal for the ISMU program is to free these outposts from total reliance on the Earth as soon as possible, thereby rapidly shifting the nature of our space transported cargo away from bulk materials, such as propellants and building materials, to additional people and complex equipment.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_76678.xml
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<text>* The selection of mission trajectories will be dramatically affected by the other portions of the mission design: - Lunar trajectory choices are driven primarily by mission objectives and operational constraints. - Mars trajectory choices are driven primarily by mission objectives, transportation system performance capabilities, and operational constraints.* Significant transportation performance ranges and options potentially exist which imply choices will be driven by mission objectives and operational constraints.* Mission trajectory options should be left open until mission objectives and operational strategies are defined.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_72483.xml
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<text>Planetary surface objectives define the mission objectives Why are we going? What are we going to do there? </text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>Examples: Planetary Human Exploration Self-Sufficient Human Settlement* Minimal planetary surface infrastructure * Emplace and expland significant human settlements* Trajectories optimized to provide global * Trajectories optimized for outpost access for human sortie missions location* Small payload requirements to the * Large payload delivery require- planetary surface ments to the planetary surface* Expendable transportation systems * Local resource utilization may be more attractive - Propellants - Consumables - Etc.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_72368.xml
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<text>Operational considerations become constraints to a strategyfor a successful mission.</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> * Minimize Earth orbit assembly operations/complexity - Necessitates larger Earth-to-orbit transportation capacity - May preclude certain space transportation (e.g., Aerobrakes, electric propulsion) - Limits vehicle reusability capability - Improved launch window flexibility - Low energy conjunction missions may be implied for Mars - May require splitting cargo and piloted missions - Implies small payloads to the planetary surface * Ensure free-return aborts on all missions * Maximize vehicle's reusability</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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<text>Propulsion System Impacts to Total Mission Trip Time</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>* Decreasing total mission trip time increases required mission delta-V* The Rocket Equation:* Initial mission mass in Earth orbit grows exponentially as total mission trip time decreases</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_69282.xml
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<text>* Several methods for producing oxygen from lunar regolith have been identified, 1. Ilmenite Reduction, 2. Carbothermal Reduction, 3. Volatile Extraction, 4. Hydrogen Sulfide Reduction, 5. Magma Electrolysis, 6. Several other* For excursion vehicles using hydrogen-oxygen propellant, 80-90% of the propellant mass is oxygen* If lunar-produced oxygen is used only for the excursion vehicle ascent, the oxygen that would normally be carried down to the lunar surface can be replaced with use- ful payload.* Mass payback typically occurs after only a few flights.* If eventual use of lunar oxygen for propellant is a goal, it will influence the design of the excursion vehicle, its propulsion system, and the transportation mode.</text>
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<name></name>
<script></script>
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<text>* Principal transportation system drivers on overall lunar mission performance - Level of vehicle reusability - Aerobrake return to Earth orbit vs. Direct Earth entry (Apollo) - Cargo transportation vs. crew transportation - Use of indigenous propellants: + excursion vehicle + transfer vehicle</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_67060.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>IMPORTANCE OF TRAJECTORY ANALYSIS: HUMAN MARS MISSIONS</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> * Launch Opportunities When, How often? * One-way Trips Times Life Science and Round-trip Time Hardware Reliability Concerns * Mars Stay-time Exploration Strategy Earth-Mars Round-trip Trajectory Analysis</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_65175.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>* Principal discriminators on lunar trajectories - Mission Objectives + Where do you want to go on the Moon? - Global access - Single outpost location - Operational Strategies + How much flexibility is needed in available launch windows? - Earth-Moon launch windows - Lunar surface-to-orbit windows + Flight times + Abort availability* Impact of trajectory choice on vehicle size or propulsion system choice is small.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_64319.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>* The relationships among these functions are coupled and highly interdependent.* Mission objectives and operational considerations drive the selection of orbital mechanics and system performance alternatives.* The premature selection of either a particular trajectory or system performance alternative could eliminate the potential of satisfying some mission objectives and/ or prohibit certain operational strategies.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
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<text> * More choices for flight (fewer for surface traverse) - Stationkeeping: free space, libration points - From orbit-to-surface: to any point ahead, below, behind - From surface-to-surface: ballistic hops, constant altitude</text>
</content>
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<script></script>
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<text> * Use standard rendezvous to reach Phobos * The Phobos gravity is small...but is significant near Phobos - At 40 km, Phobos gravity is approx. .2% of the Mars-Phobos forces - Therefore, coorbiting with Phobos at a range of 100 km can be done without accounting for Phobos gravity effects. - However, Phobos gravity must be considered at ranges closer than 40 km * Orbits around Phobos are possible - In-plane motion only yields typical elliptical orbits - When out-of-plane motion is added, a lissajous is formed (next card)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_57252.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>MANNED MARS AND/OR VENUS FLYBY VEHICLE STUDY</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> (Narrative 2)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>An initial impulse is applied to rotate the entire spacecraft to approximately one revolution per minute. The separation latches are released and the spacecraft module extends on cables kept at constant tension. At full radius, an impulse is applied to bring the rotational velocity up to the comfort zone as predicted by a physiological study. The two spacecraft sections are supported and stabilized by three sets of cables, 120 degrees apart. The nonspin axis motion is removed by a viscous damper consisting of a curved fluid-filled tube placed on the axes of symmetry. Fluid weights of 350 pounds are sufficient to damp the oscillation to 63 percent in six cycles. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>MANNED MARS AND/OR VENUS FLYBY VEHICLE STUDY</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> (Narrative 1)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> After injection out of Earth orbit, the Earth Entry Module and its Propulsion Module is transposed and docked into the configuration shown in Sketch 2 in preparation for the artificial-gravity configuration shown in Sketch 3. The conversion of the spacecraft from a zero-gravity configuration to a fully extended rotational configuration for artificial gravity is accomplished in three steps. See figure.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_55284.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>USE OF IN-SITU RESOURCES IN SPACE EXPLORATION</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> "The Hayburner Analogy" (Narrative)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> Self reliance: in-situ resource exploitation is best illustrated from a life cycle cost estimate of exploitation of the American frontier. This illustration helps to study various Mars mission options and alternatives in the context of in-situ extraterrestrial resource utilization. I have indicated how this mission-set interaction can evolve in the following chart. What this implies, in simple terms, is that once we make the decision to utilize in-situ resources wherever we go, there are going to be some significant impacts on the way we do business. For example, our LEO missions will then become dependent on lunar-supplied propellants. We may have lunar products serving as shielding, or as feed-stock or raw material for finished products that we will ship from the moon to LEO. Geosynchronous missions also may interact with lunar bases, and all deep space missionsΓÇöincluding the Mars missionsΓÇömay become essentially dependent on lunar propellants and lunar launch services. (next card)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_50733.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>USE OF IN SITU RESOURCES IN SPACE EXPLORATION</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> "The Hayburner Analogy" (Narrative)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>logistical system to deliver the propellants. I want to compare this with the logistical system associated with lifting the same mass to LEO from Earth. The mass ratio to lift something from Earth's surface (to LEO) is 15 to 1 (15:1), whereas the mass ratio for the logistical system needed to lift something into these other positions can vary from about 1 to 1 (1:1) to maybe 2 to 1 (2:1). Therefore, we are exchanging a logistical system that is on the order of one-fifteenth of the logistical system needed to operate from Earth's surface. It seems reasonably clear to us that it would not be cost effective to build a lunar base just to supply propellants for a Mars mission. That simply wouldn't pay. But, if we have a lunar base for other justifiable reasons, it would be beneficialΓÇöas demonstrated in the following figuresΓÇöto supply our manned Mars missions from the lunar surface by operating on marginal costs made possible by that lunar operation.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_51216.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>USE OF IN SITU RESOURCES IN SPACE EXPLORATION</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> "The Hayburner Analogy" (Narrative)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> Use of in situ resources require important tradeoff considerations. For example, to deliver lunar oxygen to LEO to facilitate a departure from LEO (case 4 in the following sketches), we are able to substantially reduce the mass delivered to LEO. However, we have had to incorporate a fairly significant lunar logistical system to supply the oxygen. The analytical results reflected in Case 5 (see figures) are for missions departing from the Earth-Moon L2 libration point. Such a mission is certainly conceivable and does provide some benefits, but we encounter some operational problemsΓÇöas one might expectΓÇöfor departure from the backside of the moon when our surface base is on the front side. Therefore, the mission architecture that might be better described provides a departure from L1 with only a few very minor performance penalties. To achieve the factor-of-two savings, we had to establish a lunar (next card)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_32997.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>USE OF IN SITU RESOURCES IN SPACE EXPLORATION</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> "The Hayburner Analogy" (Narrative)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>first 100 miles proved to be a near-suicide mission in itself. Having totally exhausted the consumables, we were apparently forced to eat a couple of the mules on the way back (suggested by the artist when he reduced the mule team from six to four; he must have assumed we were a third of the way back and therefore had eaten a third of the mules.) We have, of course, been considerably more serious in looking at how to support manned Mars missions than the "hayburner" analogy suggests. The type of manned Mars mission supported from a lunar base using lunar propellants, represents a good example of that strategy. The different options from a baseline 100 percent Earth-to-LEO liftoff mass reduce LEO required masses to approximately 50 percent using in situ lunar resources. It seems that it would not be cost effective to build a lunar base just for Mars mission propellants, but it would be a bonus reason for a lunar base. </text>
</content>
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<script></script>
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card_51726.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>USE OF IN SITU RESOURCES IN SPACE EXPLORATION</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> "The Hayburner Analogy" (Narrative)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> The "hayburner" transportation analogy is given as a way of describing an example of in situ resource use. Created by Phil Garrison of JPL, it extracts some data from THE EXPRESSMEN, published as one of the "Old West" series by TIME-LIFE, which provided information on the performance and sustenance requirements for (in modern terms) various exploration systems in early America. For example, one of the more popular systems was the six-mule team and light wagon. If, as illustrated (see following cards) we load all of the needed consumables we can carry on the six-mule team wagon, we findΓÇöin doing the appropriate calculationsΓÇöthat we have a range of approximately 100 miles before the consumables are used up. This suggests that if we had explored the United States in the same way we explore space, our western boundary might well have been the Appalachian Mountains. Further, we discover when examining the data that the (next card)</text>
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<script></script>
</card>
card_55822.xml
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<text> The three-man MEM designed by Ford/Philco-Aeroneutronic is accepted as it is, minus the propulsion systems. The MEM is assumed to remain at the Martian base for the maximum duration of about 50 days. A span compatible with its life support and scientific equipment capability. Additional time would require a return to orbit and the MM. Extension of the original MEM stay time beyond 50 days, without a return to orbit, would require a change in its size, weight, and balance, plus a similar change in the Planet Heat Shield. Such a redesign is not only beyond the scope of this study, but it would reduce the number of propulsion and thermal control variables to be examined. If active thermal protection is required, the critical item will be a power system. However, this problem is not unique to the propellant system in that the MEM systems would also require power. "Cold" nuclear power systems activated after landing and buried appear better than fuel cells, solar dynamic or radioisotopes.</text>
</content>
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<script></script>
</card>
card_47867.xml
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<text> During the entire space journey the crew lives in the MM. In addition, a solar flare storm cellar and planetary vehicle control center is provided. Initially, the North American-designed MM was adapted; however, it became necessary to alter its configuration and to increase its size to accommodate longer mission times. The MM is self-contained and capable of complete life support in the space environment without further shielding, etc., except for the electric power subsystem. A continuous artificial gravity requirement of 0.4g, induced by spinning about a minimum radius of 75 ft, is imposed. This requirement introduces many complications. The module weight, assumed constant throughout the mission, is composed of fixed weight (14,745 lb), outer structural weight, reaction control system weight, plus the weight of spares and logistic supplies. Supplies depend on trip time (t sub T for six astronauts) and stay time (t sub S for three astronauts). A typical weight is 36 klbs. </text>
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<script></script>
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card_46558.xml
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<text> It was desired that each payload element (i.e., the various spacecraft modules) be fixed in weight and configuration as much as practical to facilitate depth and scope in the propulsion and thermal control studies. The Lockheed-designed ERM is adapted without change. However, the quoted reentry velocity limit of 60,000 fps was reduced to 45,000 fps as a conservative step to reflect present research and development, plus possible Apollo adaptation. The crew will enter, activate and separate the ERM upon mission return shortly before reentry. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_45916.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> Expeditions to Mars require 25 kilowatts during both day and night. Photovoltaic array/regenerative fuel cell systems are baselined to supply power to the Hab/Lab modules. The permanent Mars outpost requires 75 kilowatts, which is supplied by three units. The 12-hour martian night does not impact the mass of the regenerative fuel cells as much as the 354-hour lunar night. Therefore, the need for nuclear power on Mars is not as great until large power increases are required.</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text>NARRATIVE (Nuclear Dynamic Power System - 100 kilowatts) (Photovoltaic Array/Regenerative Fuel Cell Power)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_36365.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> As outpost development proceeds, power demands rapidly increase. In addition, the 354-hour lunar night makes reliance on photovoltaic systems, which convert light to electricity, impractical for long-term lunar operations because of fuel cell limitations. Nuclear power systems will both meet these increasing demands and allow progress toward increasing operational capability. The SP-100 reactor with dynamic or thermoelectric conversion systems will supply 100 kilowatts of electrical power (see previous card). As outpost power demands grow still higher, a reactor coupled to a larger dynamic conversion sytem is emplaced to supply 550 kilowatts for the lunar outpost. This power plant is more extensive than the 100-kilowatt power module, and it will require more assembly and construction. For both systems, the reactors are buried in order to use soil as shielding material. (continued on next card)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text>NARRATIVE (Nuclear Dynamic Power System -100 kilowatts) (Photovoltaic Array/Regenerative Fuel Cell Power)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_26732.xml
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<text>for outfitting the habitat will be delivered in logistics modules, pressurized containers capable of docking to a cargo port on the habitat. The constructible habitat has egress hatch ports for connection to the Hab/Lab, the airlock, and the logistic modules. A thermal coating covers the habitats to reduce thermal loads before the facilities are covered with lunar soil for radiation shielding. An active thermal control system, consisting of a heat pump with lightweight deployable radiators, will remove metabolic, latent, and equipment waste heat. Extravehicular mobility units for lunar and Mars exploration will be designed for long-term use and maintainability. Units consist of a suit and its portable life support system. The suit is a hybrid structure of both hard and fabric components, designed for mobility on uneven, rugged, partial gravity terrain, and it is modular to facilitate resizing and maintenance of individual parts.</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text> NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_35029.xml
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<text> To accommodate larger crew and longer stays, and to provide larger pressurized volume for outpost and science operations, an expanded habitat is required. This habitat, shown in the sketch on the previous card, is a constructible 1-meter diameter inflatable structure partially buried in a crater or a prepared hole. This structure is an order of magnitude lighter than multimodule configurations of equivalent volume. Its internal structure includes self-deploying columns that telescope upward and lock into place when the structure is inflated. When fully assembled and outfitted, the constructible habitat provides three levels, and has the volume required for expansion of habitat and science facilities. Major subsystems of the constructible habitat include the life support and thermal control systems, pressure vessels and internal structure, communications and information management systems, and interior outfitting. Equipment (continued)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text> NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_26611.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> The initial Mars outpost consists of self-contained systems that allow for relatively simple emplacement operations. Later, to expand the capabilities at the outpost, a constructible habitat is erected to provide additional habitable volume for a larger crew to stay longer, and it provides additional space for increased biomedical and life sciences research. In later years, the outpost can support scientific exploration activities distant from the outpost using a manned pressurized rover for regional access.</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_39338.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>final site assessment, the crew conducts local science and exploration investigations, resource evaluations, and resource extraction demonstrations. The crew is provided an unpressurized rover for their local science and exploration traverses. During their 30-day surface stay, the crew resides in a separate habitat module delivered as part of the surface payload. The second flight, an unmanned cargo flight, delivers the permanent habitation facility, which includes a habitation module, airlock, power system and associated support equipment. The module is telerobotically deployed at the site prepared by the previous expeditionary crew. These first two missions are followed by a piloted flight that performs the first long-duration stay on the martian surface. This crew checks out the habitation module and associated support systems and uses rovers to conduct geologic traverses and to emplace scientific instruments. (continued)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_39143.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> All scenarios under consideration begin with an initial four-crew expedition. The surface stay-time for this first flight is limited to approximately 30 days, and the total mission duration is approximately 500 days. During these short stays on the surface, the crew will live in a fully integrated habitation module, similar to that used on the Moon. However, in order to accommodate crew stay times up to 600 days, a constructible habitat facility is erected after delivery on a one-way cargo mission. The crew's early activities include local geologic exploration and characterization of the Mars outpost area and the search for resources, water environments, and past and present life. One concept of the Mars outpost in the consolidation phase is shown in sketch on the previous card. Emplacement of the Mars outpost begins with an initial flight by an expeditionary crew to reconnoiter the selected outpost site. In addition to conducting a (continued)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_25808.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> NARRATIVE (Mars Transfer Vehicle Crew Module)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> The crew module depicted in the sketch on the previous card is a single, pressurized structure 7.6 meters in diameter and 9 meters in length with an internal bulkhead to provide redundant pressure volumes, and a life support system that recycles water and oxygen. The crew is provided private quarters, exercise equipment, and space suits that are appropriate for the long (up to 3 years) mission duration.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_25107.xml
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<text> The Mars excursion vehicle aerobrake, which is identical in shape and size to the Mars transfer vehicle aerobrake, provides enough lift to maneuver from Mars parking orbit to a preselected landing site. The heat shield for Mars capture and landing is an advanced thermal protection material. Landing legs are deployed after the aerobrake is dropped. The five Mars excursion vehicle descent engines, like the lunar excursion vehicle engines, provide single engine-out capability and can be throttled to 15 percent of rated thrust to enable a soft landing of the excursion vehicle. The Mars excursion vehicle ascent stage uses three of the same engines to provide single engine-out capability and has vacuum-jacketed propellant tanks to minimize boiloff losses while the ascent stage is on the Mars surface. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_40956.xml
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<text> The Mars excursion vehicle shown in the sketch on the previous card is designed to transport 25 metric tons of payload and the ascent stage from the transfer vehicle to the surface of Mars. For manned missions, the crew pilots the Mars excursion vehicle. The Mars excursion vehicle crew module, which has a design based on the lunar excursion vehicle crew module, supports the crew during descent and ascent and allows the crew to control Mars excursion vehicle maneuvers. It provides spartan crew accommodations for up to 30 days to cover contingencies in activating a surface habitat. The Mars excursion vehicle design presumes that the crew members, once on the surface, live in and operate out of a surface habitat (delivered as cargo). Consumables in the crew module are only sufficient for landing, 2 days on the surface, and ascent. Use of the crew module as a contingency surface habitat presumes that power and consumables can be obtained from the surface payload. (continued)</text>
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<text>accommodations for the transfers from Earth to Mars and back, and it also includes an Earth crew capture vehicle, an Apollo-like capsule designed to return the crew directly to Earth's surface after the early expeditionary Mars missions. The Mars transfer vehicle has a large aerobrake, which is used for aerocapture at both Earth and Mars during the later flights. The aerobrake provides lift for trajectory control as well as drag to slow the vehicle for capture into orbit. When the aerobrake is also used for Earth return, its heat shield uses an advanced, lightweight material capable of surviving the high-velocity entry into Earth's atmosphere. For trans-Earth injection from Mars orbit, the vehicle includes a propulsion system that uses four engines previously developed for the lunar transfer vehicle. The cryogenic propellant system is designed to minimize boiloff before the trans-Earth injection.</text>
</content>
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<script></script>
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card_40114.xml
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<text>Earth capture. Mars and Earth capture are accomplished by aerobraking, with the nominal entry velocity constrained to 8.5 kilometers per second at Mars and 12.5 kilometers per second at Earth, although this may be exceeded at Earth during abort trajectories. Aeromaneuvering of the lander provides cross-range landing capability to reach an out-of-plane landing site. The Mars transfer vehicle consists of a core vehicle and an expendable trans-Mars injection stage. The vehicle is placed on a Mars transfer trajectory by the injection stage, which consists of a core propulsion module with five engines and up to three additional strap-on tanks. The strap-on tanks are the same configuration as the core module tanks. When the injection stage has completed its job, it is jettisoned. The Mars transfer vehicle carries a crew and the excursion vehicle to Mars and returns a crew to Earth. The transfer vehicle provides long-duration crew (continued) </text>
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card_39866.xml
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<text> The Mars transportation system consists of the Mars transfer vehicle and Mars excursion vehicle shown on the previous card's sketch. The Mars transportation system must support a piloted mission mode to deliver a crew of four and 25 metric tons to payload to the surface of Mars and return the crew and 1 metric ton to Earth, and it must support a cargo mode that deliverrs 100 metric tons of cargo to Mars using two Mars excursion vehicles. Other key mission design requirements include the zero-gravity Mars transfer vehicle, direct entry capability for Earth return, extravehicular activity capability, accommodation of in-transit science activities, and expendable excursion vehicles. Major mission maneuvers include trans-Mars injection, Mars capture, Mars descent and landing, ascent and rendezvous, trans-Earth injection, and (continued)</text>
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<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_24570.xml
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<text> The large masses required to undertake Mars missions necessitate the development of a larger class of heavy lift launch vehicle, with a capability approximately double that required for lunar missions. The Mars heavy lift vehicle will also require large payload compartments to accommodate the volume of the Mars exploration systems. Conceptual designs of potential Mars heavy-lift vehicles are shown on the previous card's sketches.</text>
</content>
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card_42887.xml
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<text>have an option available to allow the crew to bypass Mars if necessary. For the piloted flights, a zero-gaavity Mars transfer vehicle will serve as the crew's living quarters during interplanetary transit. The feasibility of using zero gravity for such long trip times, and the required countermeasures, will have been previously determined on Freedom and the Moon. If long-term zero gravity is not feasible, an artificial gravity vehicle will be developed instead. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_38498.xml
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<text> For cargo flights, an integrated configuration of two excursion vehicles is launched. Upon approach to Mars, the two vehicles separate and enter Mars orbit using aerobrakes. The first cargo flight in the Mars outpost mission sequence delivers the habitat facility to the outpost site, and both excursion vehicles are left on the martian surface. A typical mission profile is shown in the previous two cards for flights to Mars. Piloted flights to Mars employ two different trajectory classes, distinguished by round-trip mission time: 500-day round-trip missions with short stays (up to 100 days) on the surface; and 1000-day round-trip missions with much longer surface stays of approximately 600 days. The 500-day missions will be used for the first flights to Mars, whereas the 1000-day missions will be used later in the sequence for outpost buildup when longer stays are necessary. All trajectories for the Mars outpost (cont.) </text>
</content>
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<script></script>
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card_38394.xml
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<text> Following the establishment of a lunar outpost, the next step in the strategy is the development of a permanent Mars outpost, which begins with the launch of the crew, surface payload, transportation vehicles, and propellant from Earth to Space Station Freedom. The transfer and excursion vehicles are assembled, checked out, and fueled at or in the vicinity of Freedom. Upon appraoch to Mars, the transfer and excursion vehicles separate and perform aerobraking maneuvers to enter the martian atmosphere separately. The vehicles rendezvous in Mars orbit, and the crew of four transfers to the excursion vehicle, which descends to the surface using the same aerobrake. When their tour of duty is complete, the crew leaves the surface in the ascent module of the Mars excursion vehicle to rendezvous with the transfer vehicle in Mars orbit. The transfer vehicle leaves Mars orbit and returns the crew to Space Station Freedom. (continued)</text>
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card_23859.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> A reliable, long life power system is required to support virtually all surface system activities. The system employs a modular design to meet power demands that evolve from tens of kilowatts in early emplacement phasess to hundreds of kilowatts in later operation phases. For initial outpost emplacement, the system consists of three photovoltaic array/regenerative fuel cell assemblies, each of which provides 25 kilowatts during the day and 12.5 kilowatts at night (see the previous card). The power system is designed for telerobotic deployment and is located near the habitat.</text>
<text> Surface vehicles utilize as many common technologies as possible. For example, wheels are sized appropriately for loads and traction but are based on the same materials and fabrication technologies. Teleoperating systems will be variations of the same basic technology, adapted only for specific operations that are unique to a function. Power generation and storage systems will generally use common technology, also scaled to provide the required power level and duty cycle. Thermal control techniques will be common among all the mobile surface elements. Daytime oepration of these elements is likely to require the use of a heat pump for efficient heat rejection.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
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card_36937.xml
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<text> Cargo will be unloaded from the lunar excursion vehicles by a moveable gantry crane called a payload unloader (shown on the previous card). The payload unloader has three telescoping legs to vary overall height or to level the overhead load platform. Each leg is equipped with large diameter powered wheels. Six degrees of freedom of the overhead platform enable alignment of one component, such as an airlock, with a stationary one, such as a habitat module. A set of interchangeable "implements" enables the payload unloader to perform construction tasks such as excavating, relocating and smoothing regolith, grasping and lifting objects such as boulders or structural components. The implement set also includes mining and hauling equipment for lunar soil. The payload unloader is principally teleoperated with on-site supervision by robots or a crew member. (continued)</text>
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card_22004.xml
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<text>to 18 hours for each of the two crew members. For exploration to distances greater than 50 kilometers, the rover will be reconfigured either to be controlled by a telerobot that autonomously navigates the rover and perfroms science missions, or to be teleoperator-controlled from the outpost. The reconfigured rover will be able to travel to distances of up to 1,000 kilometers from the outpost for 1- to 2-year missions. The emphasis in the design of this rover is to produce a multipurpose vehicle that can be used both for crew travel around the outpost and for robotic exploration and science far from the outpost.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_37649.xml
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<text> The requirement for lunar and martian surface transportation of crew and payloads for outpost operations and for exploration and science missions will be satisfied by an unpressurized rover similar to the Apollo lunar rover, but enhanced in range and payload capability and able to be operated telerobotically. An unpressurized manned/robotic rover, shown on the previous card, is used to transport both crew and cargo about the outpost, and to perform human exploration and science missions up to 50 kilometers from the outpost. This rover also transports crew members on inspection and maintenance excursions around the habitation and launch and landing areas, the in situ resource utilization production facility, and the power production facility. The rover will carry either a crew of two and up to 300 kilograms of payload or a crew of four (if rescue from a stranded rover is required). The rover has an outboard extended life support capability for up (continued)</text>
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<script></script>
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card_21034.xml
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<text>provides power, thermal control and heat rejection, and fuel reliquefaction capabilities. A thermal tent composed of a deployable support frame and an insulation blanket is used to cover the lander and provide passive thermal shielding.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_35899.xml
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<text> Launch and landing support required on the lunar and martian surfaces primarily involves preparation and maintenance of launch and landing sites and servicing and communication facilities to accommodate vehicles during landing, postlanding, quiescent, and prelaunch periods. Site preparation and maintenance include selecting and leveling a 100-meter diameter launch and landing area and providing for blast protection of any equipment or element already emplaced on the surface. Tracking, navigation, and communications systems are also emplaced near the site. After landing, the vehicles require servicing to supply power, provide thermal control and protection, actively limit cryogenic boil-off, and monitor subsystems. To accommodate these requirements, a lunar excursion vehicle service, shown on the previous card's sketch, located next to each reusable excursion vehicle (continued) </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_20775.xml
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<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> NARRATIVE (Lunar Liquid Oxygen Production Plant)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> The Mars outpost will also provide opportunities for resource utilization. The martian atmosphere, consisting largely of carbon dioxide, can be used to provide oxygen for life support and propellant. Water on Mars may be available from the permafrost, hydrated minerals, or moisture in the atmosphere. Small demonstrations of both water and oxygen extraction technologies are to be completed by the end of the Mars emplacement phase. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_35499.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> NARRATIVE (Lunar Liquid Oxygen Production Plant)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> Using resources that exist on the Moon and Mars is highly desirable if permanent human presence is to be achieved and maintained. By minimizing the propellant resupply needs for lunar operations, the amount of mass to low Earth orbit as well as the operations cost of the outpost can be reduced dramatically. Liquid oxygen production will allow lunar excursion vehicles to be refueled on the Moon for return to lunar orbit. By eliminating the need to transport liquid oxygen from Earth to fuel the excursion vehicles, more intrinsically valuable cargo can be taken to the lunar surface. The sketch on the previous card displays a concept for a lunar liquid oxygen production plant. As the lunar outpost evolves, even greater self-sufficiency can be developed by using the coproducts of oxygen production to provide metals, structural ceramics, and even some volatile compounds. Early demonstration of oxygen production and extraction of gases will be performed on the Moon. (continued)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_20101.xml
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<text> NARRATIVE (Initial Habitat and Laboratory Modules)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>regenerative life support system that recovers more than 90 percent of the oxygen from carbon dioxide and reclaims potable water from hygiene and waste water. In addition to oxygen and water recovery, this sytem provides temperature and humidity control, atmosphere and pressure control, stowage for refrigerated and frozen goods, trash compaction, and shower, dishwashing, and laundry facilities. The laboratory uses the same life support systems as the habitat. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_34669.xml
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<text> NARRATIVE (Initial Habitat and Laboratory Modules)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>The human systems elements to be used on the Moon and Mars are expected to be essentially the same. The initial habitat module for both outposts is a horizontal Space Station Freedom-derived cylinder 4.45 meters in diameter and 8.2 meters long. Freedom technology is used for the outer structure of the pressurized modules, and the interior structure uses a modular rack system. A laboratory module is subsequently attached to the habitat to provide expanded habitable volume. This module is identical to the habitat in size, structure, life support sytem, and thermal control system. The previous sketch shows the connected "Hab/Lab" configuration with partially deployed regolith containers. When filled with lunar soil, the containers will protect the habitat from the lunar radiation environment. The Freedom-derived initial habitat and laboratory modules use a (continued) </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_34282.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> NARRATIVE (Initial Habitat and Laboratory Modules)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> Concepts have been identified and defined for lunar and Mars surface habitats, power systems, vehicles, and in situ resource utilization systems, that will satisfy the requirements of a focused set of mission objectives. First and foremost, these systems fulfill the overall objective of expanding human presence in the solar system while providing for crew health and safety throughout each mission. The systems that support crew operations on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars include modular and constructible habitats, extravehicular mobility units, airlocks, shirt-sleeve laboratories, rovers, construction equipment, and logistics modules. The habitat, extravehicular mobility units, and airlock are designed to use the lunar missions as a proving ground for subsystem technologies, system lifetime and reliability, and increasingly autonomous outpost operations. (continued)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_22844.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> NARRATIVE (Lunar Transfer Crew Module)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>depressurizing the module rather than by using an airlock. Repressurization gas is supplied for two contingency extravehicular activities. Water-filled solar flare radiation shielding is provided. The water is vented overboard before Earth atmosphere reentry to reduce the aerobrake design loads. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_31616.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> NARRATIVE (Lunar Transfer Crew Module)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> The lunar transfer crew module shown on the previous card attaches to the transfer vehicle and provides habitable support to the crew for 4 days on the trans-lunar segment and up to 7 days for return to Space Station Freedom. With the crew module attached to the transfer vehicle, the crew can override the automated rendezvous and docking system. The design concept is based on structures and subsystems from Freedom and previous spacecraft. The environmental control and life support system is a Freedom-derived two gas, open loop system. Power comes from the transfer vehicle, and the module has a galley, a zero-gravity toilet, and personnel hygiene provisions. Shuttle-type medical supplies are provided, and two ingress/egress routes are provided through Shuttle-size hatches. Transfer into the module and between modules is by intravehicular activity. Contingency extravehicular activities are achieved by (cont.)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_19809.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>by depressurizing the module. Repressurization gas is provided for two contingency extravehicular activities. A docking adapter is provided for low lunar orbit docking and crew transfer for incoming and outgoing crews.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_33157.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>lunar-gravity and zero-gravity operations. It transports four crew members between the crew transfer module in lunar orbit and the lunar outpost. During landing operations, the lunar excursion crew module provides two crew members with console positions and windows from which to visually monitor all critical landing activities, including forward landing pad touchdown. Systems are quiescent with the exception of 4 days during descent/ascent missions: 2 days during crew descent and initial surface operations, and 2 days for preparation and return to low lunar orbit. During quiescent periods on the Moon, power, thermal control, and propellant conditioning are provided by surface support systems. Transfer between modules and surface systems is initially by extravehicular activity, and later by presurized transfer using surface-based systems. The lunar excursion crew module has no airlock; therefore, extravehicular activity is supported (continued) </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_32751.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>storage of the lunar excursion vehicle, solar arrays are also required. Lunar excursion vehicle legs and landing pads are provided with height control for landing on unimproved areas. Automated rendezvous and docking in low lunar orbit are provided for reusable cargo missions, whereas piloted missions provide crew monitoring and control for rendezvous and docking operations. The propellant system is designed for 30 days on the lunar surface, and it will require surface support for longer stays. The capability to utilize lunar-generated oxygen is provided. Hydrogen would still be provided by fluid transfer from the lunar transfer vehicle to the lunar excursion vehicle in low lunar orbit. The lunar excursion crew module, which shares a common system design with the transfer crew module, has no radiation shielding and accommodates both (continued)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_32023.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> The lunar excursion vehicle shown in the previous card's sketch can be based on the lunar surface, covered by a thermal tent and ready for launch and rendezvous with the lunar transfer vehicle, or it can be stored in low lunar orbit awaiting the return of the lunar transfer vehicle. The lunar excursion vehicle is sized to deliver approximately 33 metric tons to the lunar surface in an expendable cargo-only mode or approximately 13-15 metric tons of cargo plus a crew module in a piloted mode. The lunar excursion vehicle elements include a propulsion system, landing legs, crew cab, and other subsystems. The lunar excursion vehicle and the lunar transfer vehicle share common system designs for some elements, including the main engines, cryogenic reaction control system thrusters, avionics and selected software, and communications. Four advanced fuel cells are provided for electrical power. For low lunar orbit (continued)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_18983.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> NARRATIVE(Lunar Transfer and Excur. Vehicle Ref. Engine) </text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> Lunar transfer vehicle engines were selected on the basis of vehicle thrust-to-weight, number of engines, throttle range, and man-rating. The need for man-rating with multiple engines for engine out capability, the desire for a common engine, and the excursion vehicle touchdown "g" limit with a throttling requirement of less than 20:1 resulted in the selection of four engines at 89 kilonewtons of thrust each. (See the preious card.) </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_30546.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> Sketch (Lunar Transfer and Excursion Vehicle Ref. Engines)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> Transfer Excursion Vehicle VehicleThrust, kilonewtons 89 89Vacuum Isp, seconds 481 465Vacuum Chamber psia 1,500 1,500Mixture Ratio 6 6Throttling Range Tank Head Idle Tank Head Idle Pumped Idle less than 20:1 Full</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_31423.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>assumed. After each mission, the aerobrake will be refurbished and verified at Space Station Freedom. The lunar transfer vehicle uses an integral cryogenic reaction control system for attitude control and stabilization. Electrical power is provided by solar arrays and batteries or fuel cells. Advanced, man-rated, redundant avionics and communications use hardware and software elements that are common with the excursion vehicle. Multiple communications capabilities between the lunar excursion vehicle, lunar transfer vehicle, Earth, Space Station Freedom, the lunar surface, and communications satellites are provided. An automated rendezvous and docking system is provided for the lunar transfer vehicle. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_30302.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>launch four fully loaded expendable main propellant tanks to Freedom for mating to the transfer vehicle. The Shuttle will deliver cargo modules and crew to Freedom, where the cargo modules will be added to complete the integrated lunar transportation vehicle. Two propellant tanks will be dropped just after trans-lunar injection, and two will be dropped in low lunar orbit. The transfer vehicle will become a staging base in low lunar orbit for the excursion vehicle and the cargo, and it will also transfer cryogenic propellants and consumables to the excursion vehicle when it is reused. Compared to an all-propulsive Earth return, aerobraking significantly reduces the initial mass required in low Earth orbit. The aerobrake is a rigid structure made of composite materials with advanced thermal protection materials used to protect the aerobrake in the maximum heating region. Aerobrake reuse for five missions is (cont.)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_29956.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>reusable core and expendable propellant tanks. Using expendable drop-tanks reduces the vehicle's propellant load by approximately 10 percent compared to a single-stage reusable lunar transfer vehcile. The lunar transfer vehicle elements include a core propulsion/avionics module, main expendable propellant tanks aerobrake, crew module, and other vehicle subsystems. On initial crew delivery flights, the vehicles will be packaged and launched to Freedom on a single heavy-lift launch vehicle. Packaging includes the fully fueled core propulsion/avionics module, the aerobrake central core and peripheral segments, transfer vehicle crew module, excursion vehicle crew cab, and partially fueled excursion vehicle. At Freedom, the eight peripheral segments of the aerobrake will be attached to the aerobrake central core, and the combination will be checked out for structural integrity. Two additional heavy-lift vehicles will (continued)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_29812.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> The lunar transfer vehicle transports crew and cargo between Space Station Freedom and lunar orbit; the lunar excursion vehicle provides transporation between lunar orbit and the surface of the Moon. The vehicles shown in the previous sketch allow mission flexibility by employing a common design for delivery of both cargo and crew. Key mission design criteria are: (1) timing of the launch and return opportunities from Freedom, (2) payload mass delivered to the lunar surface and mass required in low Earth orbit, (3) mission abort/safe-return options, and (4) Earth-to-orbit launch vehicle/payload manifesting. To maximize cargo delivery to the lunar surface, initial flights will expend the lunar transporation vehicles. On subsequent flights, the lunar transportation system will be reused up to five times to reduce vehicle and operational cost. The lunar transfer vehicle concept is a 1-1/2 stage design consisting of a (cont.)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>6</id>
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_18773.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> operational processing of the Moon's resources and to help reduce the outpost's dependence on Earth. For example, oxygen extracted from the lunar soil can help make up losses from the outpost's life support system and could be used as propellants for the excursion vehicles. Nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium could also be extracted from the lunar soil and used at the outpost. Processing resources on the Moon will also develop an experience base for operational techniques for use in Mars resource utilization. In addition, dependency on Earth will be reduced by relying on systems with higher levels of recovery of life support consumables. The previous sketch depicts a typical lunar outpost in the operational phase of development.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_29433.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> The initial lunar outpost will consist of self-contained systems that allow for relatively simple emplacement operations. Later, to expand the capabilities at the outpost, a constructed habitat will be erected to provide additional habitable volume for a larger crew to stay longer and to provide additional space for increased biomedical and life sciences research. The design of the facilities is driven by the desire to simulate the eventual 600-day surface stays anticipated for the Mars outpost, and the constructible lunar module will serve as the prototype for the Mars module. In later years, the outpost can support scientific exploration activities distant from the outpost using a manned pressurized rover for regional access or using the excursion vehicle for expeditions to the farside of the Moon. Power capacity at the lunar outpost will be expanded to support increased demands. The increased power capability at the outpost will be used to begin (cont.)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_28757.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text>for the Mars mission vehicles. The vehicle assembly and maintenance crews andtransient mission crews will be housed within the second habitation module added to Freedom in the lunar operations phase. Increased vehicle processing activities will require additional power; however, this increase is within the power generation capability of the Space Station Freedom lunar node configuration. </text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> NARRATIVE (Space Station Freedom) </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_42578.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> The various components are assembled and checked out at Space Station Freedom, which will serve as a transportation node for exploration missions. The planned baseline configuration of Freedom is capable of accepting the evolutionary modifications to support the processing and storage facilities for the lunar vehicles. An additional habitat module will supply the volume to house the vehicle assembly and maintenance crews and the transient lunar mission crews. Additional crew and vehicle processing activities will require additional power and thermal control capability. Further modifications and enhancements to the lunar node configuration of Freedom will be required to perform Mars vehicle operations, in addition to the continued processing of the lunar transfer vehicle. WIth the lunar configuration as a baseline, additional structure is added to accommodate the processing facilities (cont.)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> NARRATIVE (Space Station Freedom) </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_41888.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> The size of the lunar vehicles and payload and the amount of material delivered to Space Station Freedom require a heavy-lift launch vehicle with capabilities beyond those of the current fleet of Shuttles and expendable launch vehicles. The launch vehicles must be sized to provide a balance between the degree of assembly and integration required at Freedom and the size of the vehicles. The sketche on the previous card depicts two lunar heavy-lift launch vehicle options, one derived from the Shuttle and the other a version of the Advanced Launch System. Both will have a payload shroud large enough to allow lunar transfer and excursion vehicles to be launched virtually intact from Earth, but a single launch approach would require an extremely large launch vehicle. Instead, the transfer and excursion vehicles will be launched with the cargo in one flight, and the required propellant will be delivered to Freedom in two additional flights.</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_41271.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> NARRATIVE (LUNAR MISSION PROFILE)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> Emplacement of the lunar outpost begins with an unmanned cargo mission that delivers the first elements to the selected outpost site and is also an extensive flight test of the lunar transportation system, including vehicle assembly, fueling, and integration at Freedom. It is flown as a partially loaded mission, delivering an unpressurized manned/robotic rover and the equipment necessary to prepare the outpost site and off-load payloads from the excursion vehicles. The rover, which will initially be operated telerobotically, will enable the study of subsurface characteristics and aid in determining where the outpost will be located. The second flight to the Moon is also a cargo mission, which will deliver the initial permanent habitation facilities: a habitation module, airlock, power system, and associated support equipment. The module will be telerobotically emplaced on the surface at the prepared location and covered with lunar soil to provide radiation shielding. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_28387.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> NARRATIVE (LUNAR MISSION PROFILE)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> Missions to the Moon fall into two categories: piloted and cargo. The previous sketch illustrates the typical mission profile for delivering crew and cargo to the lunar surface. A piloted mission delivers a crew of four and some cargo to the lunar surface and returns a crew of four and limited cargo to Freedom; a cargo mission delivers only cargo, and the vehicle is either expended or returned empty. The missions use common transfer and excursion vehicles: the piloted missions add a crew cab for personnel transfer, and cargo missions use only a cargo pallet. The vehicle for cargo missions can be expended, which increases the payload delivery capability to the lunar surface. For piloted flights, the transfer vehicle employs an Earth-to-Moon trajectory that allows the crew to return safely to Space Station Freedom if necessary. (continued on next card)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_27923.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text>NASA 90-Day Moon/Mars Study (November 1989)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>17</id>
<text> NARRATIVE (LUNAR MISSION PROFILE)</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>16</id>
<text> The Lunar Mission establishes an outpost beginning with two or three launches of the lunar payload, crew, transportation vehicles, and propellants from Earth to Space Station Freedom. At Freedom, the crew, payloads, and propellants are loaded onto the lunar transfer vehicle that will take them to low lunar orbit. The lunar transfer vehicle meets in lunar orbit with an excursion vehicle, which will either be parked in lunar orbit or will ascend from the lunar surface, and payload, crew, and propellants are transferred. After the excursion vehicle descends to the lunar surface, the transfer vehicle will return to Freedom. The transfer vehicles will be serviced and maintained at Freedom, and the excursion vehicles will be serviced and maintained at the outpost. Facilities will be provided at the outpost site to maintain the excursion vehicle during the crew's stay on the surface, which can be as long one year. (continued on next card)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_18073.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> (Continued from the previous card) The descent stage contains the crew living quarters and laboratory for use while on Mars, the descent engine and propellant tanks, ballutes, landing gear, supporting structure, an outer heat shield/structure, and the various subsystem. The crew quarters and laboratory are formed out of a segment of the toroidal lower part of the vehicle and are connceted to the control center of the ascent module by airlocks and tunnels. Seven deorbit motors are arranged in a circle outside the heat shield. The descent propellants are housed in three spherical tanks. The descent and ascent engines are both pump-fed, gimbaled, plug nozzel engines and operate at a chamber pressure of 1,000 psi. FLOX-methane propellants are used. Surface operations include experiments and return of 900 lbs of Mars samples. The same MEM design is adequate for all the various Mars missions. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_17096.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> The Mars Excursion Module (MEM) transports a crew of three and equipment from Mars orbit to the planet's surface, provides living and laboratory quarters for the 30-day stay on Mars, and transports the crew with scientific data/samples back to Mission Module in Mars orbit. MEM has an Apollo shape, a diameter of 30 feet, and is adapted from work done by North American Rockwell Corp. (NAS 9-6464, January 1968, "Definition of Experimental Tests for Manned Mars Excursion Module"). The previous card depicts the MEM configuration. MEM consists of descent and ascent modules. The ascent module houses the crew during entry, descent, landing, and ascent. It has a control center, ascent engine, and propellant tanks. The first-stage ascent propellant is stored in eight conical tanks (5 oxidizer, 3 fuel) outside the thrust structure. The second-stage ascent propellant is stored in two tanks between the engines and the ascent capsule control center. (continued on next card)</text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_14607.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> A blunted, biconic Earth Entry Module (EEM), typical of a high speed entry vehicle was chosen as the Earth entry vehicle. The biconic design was adopted from work reported under NASA Contract NAS2-2526 (Lockheed Missiles and Space Co., "Study of Manned Vehicles for Entering the Earth's Atmosphere at Hyperbolic Speeds," LMSC 4-05-65-12, November, 1965). The EEM is designed for a crew of six with 1-day occupancy and maximum entry velocity of up to 65,000 fps. The EEM transports the mission crew and science data/samples from the Mission Module on the return hyperbolic trajectory to a safe landing on Earth (water landing). The biconic EEM shape is shown on the previous card. Crew arrangement is in twos, side by side. The elliptical cross section of the afterbody, in which nearly all the integral sub-systems are packaged, dictates the placement of large components above the heads and below the feet of the crew to allow seats to fill the center portion of the vehicle.</text>
</content>
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<script></script>
</card>
card_13383.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> The previous card show the general arrangement of the spacecraft consisting of the mission module (MM), a Mars excursion module (MEM), an Earth entry module (EEM), and a probe bay. These major elements are interconnected by pressurized tunnels allowing shirtsleeve passage between them. The forward interstage compartment is an unpressurized area that contains the EEM, the inbound midcourse correction propulsion system, some of the experiment sensors, and mission module equipment. A side hatch is installed in the mission module to the EEM transfer tunnel to provide access to equipment to this area. The aft interstage compartment is an unpressurized volume containing the MEM, the airlock system, and some of the MM and experiment equipment. The tunnel to the MEM has a side hatch to reach equipment installed here. Two pressurized tunnels extend from the central tunnel for transfer from logistic vehicles in Earth orbit. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_16024.xml
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<text>The recommended Earth Launch vehicle, shown in the previous card is an uprated Saturn V. It consists of the Saturn V first stage lengthened 40 feet., five uprated (1.8 x 10^6 lb thrust/engine) F-1 engines, a standard length second stage with five uprated J2S engines, and four 4-segment, 156 inch diameter solid rocket motors attached to the first stage. This vehicle can place a payload of 548,400 lbs (249,300 kg) into a 262-nautical-mile (485 km) circular orbit. A LO2/LH2 transtage is used to provide the final 475 fps (145 m/sec) for circularization.</text>
</content>
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<script></script>
</card>
card_15304.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> brake the speed of the command module from its arrival conditon to Apollo design conditions (parabolic speed). The service module is jettisoned thereafter, and the command module performs the normal Apollo entry and landing maneuvers. The Venus mission is essentially indentical to the Mars mission. The same orbital launch vehicle (S-IIB) is used except for being off-loaded and having possibly a correspondingly reduced length of the cylindrical section of the H2 tankage. The spacecraft is also the same except for off-loading due to less rocket retro-braking, reduced attitude control, and reduced life support system requirements because of the shorter mission duration. For Venus the launch speed from the 485 km Earth orbit is 3.8 + or - .2 km/sec. For Mars launch speed is 5 + or - .2 km/sec. For Venus the Earth arrival speed is 2.6 + or - .3 km/sec. For Mars the Earth arrival speed is 4.1 + or - .7 km/sec. </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_12414.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text> The spacecraft proceeds along its trajectory with continuous attitude control, but with no simulated gravity. A similated gravity version is more complicated and heavier. Midcourse propulsion is provided by a Lunar Excursion Module descent engine (thrust: 10,000 lbs). During the Mars encounter, 10,000 lbs of scientific probes are put on and around Mars. The probes are then monitored by the spacecraft and data are relayed back to Earth. Later, the probes might communicate with Earth at a reduced bandwidth. Some days prior to Earth encounter, the crew will transfer into the command module to perform checkout adjustment and repair operations. At this time, the crew switches to the Apollo life support system. Well before Earth return, both command and service module are separated from the hangar, and positioned for Earth retro-braking. Prior to atmospheric entry, the service module is used to (continued) </text>
</content>
<name></name>
<script></script>
</card>
card_12271.xml
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<text> Lastly (in order to minimize the staytime of liquid hydrogen in space), the orbital launch vehicle (modified S-II stateΓÇöreferred to as S-IIB) is put into a circular 485 km altitude orbit. The vehicle contains up to 155,000 lbs of liquid H2. (The total Saturn V payload capability to a 485-km orbit is assumed to be 257,000 lbs; the nominal standard Saturn V capability to that orbit is about 220,000.) The crew of three board the spacecraft in the 185 km orbit, and both spacecraft and tankers rendezvous with the S-IIB. Finally, launch from the 485 km orbit occurs, using the S-IIB stage. The S-IIB stage is separated and jettisoned. The RL-10 engines in the adapter might be used at this time for injection vernier; then the adapter is jettisoned. If advantageous, however, the adapter could be left attached to the spacecraft, e.g. , for meteroid protection of the spacecraft aft end.</text>
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card_11956.xml
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<text> The first flight from Earth puts the unmanned interplanetary spacecraft, an S-II stage, and the adapter between the spacecraft and the S-II stage into a 185 km orbit.The S-II stage separates and is jettisoned. The remaining total mass is between 183,000 pounds (Venus, 1978) and 274,000 pounds (Mars, 1973). The adapter contains the Saturn V instrument unit and a propulsion system (two RL-10 engines with spherical tanks, some low thrust storable propellant engines for vernier maneuvers and attitude engines) which is used to rendezvous the spacecraft with the S-IIB stage. Actual docking might employ the attitude control engines. The spacecraft mass is about 200,000 lbs; its size is comparable to the S-IVB stage. Four LOX tankers are required to transport the required LOX (up to 772,000 lbs) to the S-IIB, and are put into the 185 km orbit.* H.O. Ruppe, "Mission Study: Manned Venus/Mars Fly By," NASA MSFC, 8-23-65.</text>
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card_11365.xml
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<text> During the entire space journey the crew lives in the MM. In addition a solar flare storm cellar and planetary vehicle control center is provided. Initially, the North American-designed MM was adapted; however, it became necessary to alter its configuration and to increase its size to accommodate longer mission times. The MM is self-contained and capable of complete life support in the space environment without further shielding, etc.,except for the electric power subsystem. A continuous artificial gravity requirement of 0.4 g induced by spinning about a mininum radius of 75 ft is imposed. This requirement introduces many complications. The module weight, assumed constant throughout the mission, is composed of fixed weight (14,745 lb), outer structural weight, reaction control system weight, plus the weight of spares and logistic supplies. The latter are dependent on the total trip time ( t (T) for six men). </text>
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<text>Future Space Transporation Systems Analyses Study </text>
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card_8967.xml
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<text> An evolution of crew modules for the orbit transfer vehicle is illustrated on the previous two cards. The smallest one shown is a utility vehicle for a crew of two for missions on the order of one day. A two-to-four-man vehicle for one to two weeks occupancy is shown in the middle. This is achieved through adding a cylindrical section to the habitat module and increasing subsystems capacity. Similar steps can result in much larger crew modules capable of handling relatively large numbers of people. The 14 crew for one week capability indicated on the card would also be capable of handling a larger number of people for relatively short missions on the order of one day (such as crew transport to a geosynchronous construction base).</text>
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card_8075.xml
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<text> NARRATIVE (Lunar Transport Vehicles)</text>
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<text> The lunar transport vehicles identified by the Future Space Transportation Systems Study represent a merging of the technology of the orbit transfer vehicles and the lunar module used for the Apollo program. (See previous card's sketch.) The special requirements of the lunar surface mission demand that the LTV be a new design, but significant technology commonality is available from other programs. The 1.5 stage LO2/LH2 LTV was selected on the basis of its superior performance and more convenient operational characteristics.</text>
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<text>Future Space Transporation Systems Analyses Study </text>
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<text> NARRATIVE (2) Lunar Transport Vehicles</text>
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<text>capability of the Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle (HLLV). Performance gain and improved landing height are possible with a 1.5 stage LO2/LH2 concept. The drop tank in this case is jettisoned prior to the terminal descent maneuver. Stages employing LO2/MMH propellant were considered because the average bulk density is approximately three times that of LO2/LH2. This factor more than compensates for the lower Isp in terms of the resulting height of the configuration when compared to a LO2/LH2 concept using the same staging method.</text>
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card_6369.xml
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<text> NARRATIVE (1) Lunar Transport Vehicles</text>
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<text> Five basic transportation options considered for the LTV application are compared in the sketch on the previous card. The particular size indicated for each option is related to the payload requirements of the Orbiter Lunar Station (OLS) mission; however, the general arrangement will remain the same for all of the missions employing LTV's. The illustrated concepts have been considered for the following reasons: The small diameter single stage LO2/LH2 concept offers simplicity and reasonable performance (the landing configuration is quite tall if Shuttle compatibility is required). As a means of reducing the landing height of a single stage LO2/LH2 option, consideration is given to a large diameter LTV concept that uses the full diameter (( (continued)</text>
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card_5724.xml
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<text>represented by the Future Space Transportation System Analysis Study missions. Detailed mission profile analyses, including coast period propellant boiloff, start and stop losses, and auxiliary propulsion usage, were used for all high-thrust system performance analyses. Low thrust systems were optimized for Isp and, where applicable, trip time. Three-degree-of-freedom numerical integrations were used to determine low-thrust delta V's; a simple orbit transfer/plane change algorithm was developed for optimal low Earth orbit-geosynchronous orbit transfers. Electric propulsion systems depending upon solar electric power were analyzed considering the occultation of the sun by the Earth.</text>
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<text> NARRATIVE (3) Orbital Transfer Vehicle Options </text>
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<text>Future Space Transporation Systems Analyses Study</text>
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<text>regardless of the mission. In general these concepts are being considered for the following reasons: the LO2/LH2 single stage for its simplicity; the LO2/LH2 1.5 stage for its performance and size compatibility with the Shuttle; the LO2/LH2 common stage for performance as well as complete reusability; LO2/MMH stages offer size compatibility with the Shuttle; nuclear LH2 stages provide good performance; the nuclear electric and solar electric stages provide very high specific impulse and consequent low propellant refueling requirements. These last two concepts are only used for delivery of unmanned payloads due to their long trip times through the trapped radiation belt surrounding the Earth. They are supplemented by chemical stages for manned payloads. These vehicles were configured and analyzed over the ranges of requirements (continued on next card) </text>
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<text> NARRATIVE (2) Orbital Transfer Vehicle Options</text>
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<text>Future Space Transporation Systems Analyses Study</text>
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<text> The study investigated a range of orbit transfer vehicle technologies, including high thrust systems and low thrust system. Specific impulse ranged from 366 seconds (L02/MMH) to 10,000 seconds (nuclear or solar electric low thrust propulsion). Representative vehicle envelopes are shown in the previous card sketches. To illustrate the influence of different propellant and staging concepts on overall size and general arrangement, the OTV concepts shown in the next card sketches were all sized to perform a Geosynchronous Space Station crew rotation/resupply mission. These differences in configuration have a major impact on launch vehicle selection and orbital assembly operations. Several of the vehicles shown require aHeavy Lift Launch Vehicle for launch to Earth orbit because of their size. The concepts illustrated are representative of the configuration arrangements (continued on next card)</text>
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<text> NARRATIVE (1) Orbital Transfer Vehicle Options</text>
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<text>Future Space Transporation Systems Analyses Study</text>
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<text>The mission goal of Mars Sample Return is exploration of the martian surface with return to Earth of 10 kg (22 lbs) of surface and atmosphere samples. The previous sketch illustrates typical operations on the martian surface. The lander stands on its legs with the two rover ramps deployed. One rover is on the ramp; the second is near the sample return system receptacle. This receptacle brings the sample canister to its launch location in the return system which is mounted on the lander. The lander serves as launch pad for the sample return ascent stage.* Boeing Aerospace, "Future Space Transportation Systems Analysis Study: Executive Summary," D180-20242-1, December 31, 1976.</text>
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<text>INDEX CARD STUDY LISTING (5)</text>
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<text>11. Thomas A. Sullivan, Ph.D. and David S. McKay, Ph.D. "Using Space Resources," NASA Johnson Space Center, 1991. 12. Thomas P. Stafford and Commission. "The Synthesis Group Report." Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, May 1991.</text>
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<text>9. NASA, Lunar & Mars Exploration Program Office. "Phobos Exploration: Orbital Mechanics Tutorial." Presentation to the Synthesis Group, Dupont, September 4, 1990.10. NASA, Lunar & Mars Exploration Program Office. "Mission Interrelationships: Design Drivers, Mission Components, Trajectory Options, System Performance, Operational Strategies, and Mission Objects." Presentation to the Synthesis Group, Weaver, September 4, 1990. </text>
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<text>7. Roberts, Barney. "A Transportation System for Routine Visits to Mars," THE NASA MARS CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS. Washington, D.C. : Advanced Programs Office, NASA Johnson Space Center, and National Academy of Sciences, July 21-23, 1986. 8. North American Aviation, Inc. "Study of Manned Planetary Flyby Missions Based on Saturn/Apollo Systems: Final Report , Volume I - Summary Report ," SID 67-549-1, August 1967.</text>
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<text> 3. NASA, MSC and ASTD. "Spacecraft Configurations, Weights and Subsystems Approach for Mars Mission." Presented at Kennedy Space Center, June 29, 1966.4. The Boeing Company. "Integrated Manned Interplanetary Spacecraft Concept Definition, Volume I Summary," NASA CR 66558; D2-113544-1, January 1968.5. NASA. "Report of the 90-Day Study on Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars," NASA Report to the National Space Council, November 1989.6. Martin. "Spacecraft Propulsion Systems for Manned Mars and Venus Missions: Final Review," NASW-1053, July 7, 1965.</text>
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<text> 1. Boeing Aerospace Company. "Future Space Transportation Systems Analyses Study: Executive Summary," Vol. 1, D180-20242-1. Submitted to NASA in fulfillment of the requirements of Contract NAS9-14323 to Johnson Space Center, December 31, 1976. 2. H.O. Ruppe. "Manned Planetary Reconnaissance Mission Study: Venus/Mars Fly By," PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONFERENCE ON EXPLORATION OF MARS AND VENUS. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Engineering Extension Series Circular No. 5, August 23-27, 1965. </text>
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<script>on mouseuprepeat with y = 1 to 100set cursor to busyglobal t1,t2,t3,t4,t5,t6,t7,t8,t9,t10,t11,t12,t13,t14,t15,¬t16,t17,t18,t19,t20,t21,t22,t23,t24,t25,t26,t27,t28,t29,t30,¬t31,t32,t33,t34,t35,t36,t37,t38,t39,t40,t41,t42,t43,t44global t0, x, r,hat,straw,buff1,buff2,count1,count2,¬t45,t46,t47,t48,t49,t50,t51,t52,t53,t54,t55,t56,t57,t58,t59,t60find whole t0get the resultif count1>=3 and it is not empty thenput the number of this card into hatput the foundchunk into buff1show message boxflash 2exit mouseupelseif it is not empty thenadd 1 to count1add 1 to xput "t"&x into rset lockscreen to truego to "Mercury Mission Stack"send "mouseup" to button "GlobalFind"elseput the number of this card into hatput the foundchunk into buff1exit mouseupend ifend ifend repeatend mouseupon enterkeyglobal t1,t2,t3,t4,t5,t6,t7,t8,t9,t10,t11,t12,t13,t14,t15,¬t16,t17,t18,t19,t20,t21,t22,t23,t24,t25,t26,t27,t28,t29,t30,¬t31,t32,t33,t34,t35,t36,t37,t38,t39,t40,t41,t42,t43,t44global t0,x,r,hat,straw,buff1,buff2,count1,count2,t45,t46,t47,¬t48,t49,t50,t51,t52,t53,t54,t55,t56,t57,t58,t59,t60hide message boxfind whole t0put 0 into count1put the number of this card into strawput the foundchunk into buff2if straw = hat and buff1 = buff2 thenadd 1 to xput "t"&x into rset lockscreen to truego to "Mercury Mission Stack"send "mouseup" to button "GlobalFind"end ifend enterkey</script>
